1"""
   2## Expressions
   3
   4Every AST node in SQLGlot is represented by a subclass of `Expression`.
   5
   6This module contains the implementation of all supported `Expression` types. Additionally,
   7it exposes a number of helper functions, which are mainly used to programmatically build
   8SQL expressions, such as `sqlglot.expressions.select`.
   9
  10----
  11"""
  12
  13from __future__ import annotations
  14
  15import datetime
  16import math
  17import numbers
  18import re
  19import textwrap
  20import typing as t
  21from collections import deque
  22from copy import deepcopy
  23from enum import auto
  24from functools import reduce
  25
  26from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, ParseError
  27from sqlglot.helper import (
  28    AutoName,
  29    camel_to_snake_case,
  30    ensure_collection,
  31    ensure_list,
  32    is_int,
  33    seq_get,
  34    subclasses,
  35)
  36from sqlglot.tokens import Token
  37
  38if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  39    from sqlglot._typing import E, Lit
  40    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  41
  42
  43class _Expression(type):
  44    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  45        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  46
  47        # When an Expression class is created, its key is automatically set to be
  48        # the lowercase version of the class' name.
  49        klass.key = clsname.lower()
  50
  51        # This is so that docstrings are not inherited in pdoc
  52        klass.__doc__ = klass.__doc__ or ""
  53
  54        return klass
  55
  56
  57SQLGLOT_META = "sqlglot.meta"
  58TABLE_PARTS = ("this", "db", "catalog")
  59
  60
  61class Expression(metaclass=_Expression):
  62    """
  63    The base class for all expressions in a syntax tree. Each Expression encapsulates any necessary
  64    context, such as its child expressions, their names (arg keys), and whether a given child expression
  65    is optional or not.
  66
  67    Attributes:
  68        key: a unique key for each class in the Expression hierarchy. This is useful for hashing
  69            and representing expressions as strings.
  70        arg_types: determines what arguments (child nodes) are supported by an expression. It
  71            maps arg keys to booleans that indicate whether the corresponding args are optional.
  72        parent: a reference to the parent expression (or None, in case of root expressions).
  73        arg_key: the arg key an expression is associated with, i.e. the name its parent expression
  74            uses to refer to it.
  75        comments: a list of comments that are associated with a given expression. This is used in
  76            order to preserve comments when transpiling SQL code.
  77        type: the `sqlglot.expressions.DataType` type of an expression. This is inferred by the
  78            optimizer, in order to enable some transformations that require type information.
  79        meta: a dictionary that can be used to store useful metadata for a given expression.
  80
  81    Example:
  82        >>> class Foo(Expression):
  83        ...     arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
  84
  85        The above definition informs us that Foo is an Expression that requires an argument called
  86        "this" and may also optionally receive an argument called "expression".
  87
  88    Args:
  89        args: a mapping used for retrieving the arguments of an expression, given their arg keys.
  90    """
  91
  92    key = "expression"
  93    arg_types = {"this": True}
  94    __slots__ = ("args", "parent", "arg_key", "comments", "_type", "_meta", "_hash")
  95
  96    def __init__(self, **args: t.Any):
  97        self.args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = args
  98        self.parent: t.Optional[Expression] = None
  99        self.arg_key: t.Optional[str] = None
 100        self.comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None
 101        self._type: t.Optional[DataType] = None
 102        self._meta: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, t.Any]] = None
 103        self._hash: t.Optional[int] = None
 104
 105        for arg_key, value in self.args.items():
 106            self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 107
 108    def __eq__(self, other) -> bool:
 109        return type(self) is type(other) and hash(self) == hash(other)
 110
 111    @property
 112    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
 113        return frozenset(
 114            (k, tuple(_norm_arg(a) for a in v) if type(v) is list else _norm_arg(v))
 115            for k, v in self.args.items()
 116            if not (v is None or v is False or (type(v) is list and not v))
 117        )
 118
 119    def __hash__(self) -> int:
 120        if self._hash is not None:
 121            return self._hash
 122
 123        return hash((self.__class__, self.hashable_args))
 124
 125    @property
 126    def this(self) -> t.Any:
 127        """
 128        Retrieves the argument with key "this".
 129        """
 130        return self.args.get("this")
 131
 132    @property
 133    def expression(self) -> t.Any:
 134        """
 135        Retrieves the argument with key "expression".
 136        """
 137        return self.args.get("expression")
 138
 139    @property
 140    def expressions(self) -> t.List[t.Any]:
 141        """
 142        Retrieves the argument with key "expressions".
 143        """
 144        return self.args.get("expressions") or []
 145
 146    def text(self, key) -> str:
 147        """
 148        Returns a textual representation of the argument corresponding to "key". This can only be used
 149        for args that are strings or leaf Expression instances, such as identifiers and literals.
 150        """
 151        field = self.args.get(key)
 152        if isinstance(field, str):
 153            return field
 154        if isinstance(field, (Identifier, Literal, Var)):
 155            return field.this
 156        if isinstance(field, (Star, Null)):
 157            return field.name
 158        return ""
 159
 160    @property
 161    def is_string(self) -> bool:
 162        """
 163        Checks whether a Literal expression is a string.
 164        """
 165        return isinstance(self, Literal) and self.args["is_string"]
 166
 167    @property
 168    def is_number(self) -> bool:
 169        """
 170        Checks whether a Literal expression is a number.
 171        """
 172        return isinstance(self, Literal) and not self.args["is_string"]
 173
 174    @property
 175    def is_int(self) -> bool:
 176        """
 177        Checks whether a Literal expression is an integer.
 178        """
 179        return self.is_number and is_int(self.name)
 180
 181    @property
 182    def is_star(self) -> bool:
 183        """Checks whether an expression is a star."""
 184        return isinstance(self, Star) or (isinstance(self, Column) and isinstance(self.this, Star))
 185
 186    @property
 187    def alias(self) -> str:
 188        """
 189        Returns the alias of the expression, or an empty string if it's not aliased.
 190        """
 191        if isinstance(self.args.get("alias"), TableAlias):
 192            return self.args["alias"].name
 193        return self.text("alias")
 194
 195    @property
 196    def alias_column_names(self) -> t.List[str]:
 197        table_alias = self.args.get("alias")
 198        if not table_alias:
 199            return []
 200        return [c.name for c in table_alias.args.get("columns") or []]
 201
 202    @property
 203    def name(self) -> str:
 204        return self.text("this")
 205
 206    @property
 207    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
 208        return self.alias or self.name
 209
 210    @property
 211    def output_name(self) -> str:
 212        """
 213        Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.
 214
 215        If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.
 216
 217        Example:
 218            >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
 219            >>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
 220            'a'
 221            >>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
 222            'c'
 223            >>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
 224            ''
 225        """
 226        return ""
 227
 228    @property
 229    def type(self) -> t.Optional[DataType]:
 230        return self._type
 231
 232    @type.setter
 233    def type(self, dtype: t.Optional[DataType | DataType.Type | str]) -> None:
 234        if dtype and not isinstance(dtype, DataType):
 235            dtype = DataType.build(dtype)
 236        self._type = dtype  # type: ignore
 237
 238    def is_type(self, *dtypes) -> bool:
 239        return self.type is not None and self.type.is_type(*dtypes)
 240
 241    def is_leaf(self) -> bool:
 242        return not any(isinstance(v, (Expression, list)) for v in self.args.values())
 243
 244    @property
 245    def meta(self) -> t.Dict[str, t.Any]:
 246        if self._meta is None:
 247            self._meta = {}
 248        return self._meta
 249
 250    def __deepcopy__(self, memo):
 251        copy = self.__class__(**deepcopy(self.args))
 252        if self.comments is not None:
 253            copy.comments = deepcopy(self.comments)
 254
 255        if self._type is not None:
 256            copy._type = self._type.copy()
 257
 258        if self._meta is not None:
 259            copy._meta = deepcopy(self._meta)
 260
 261        return copy
 262
 263    def copy(self):
 264        """
 265        Returns a deep copy of the expression.
 266        """
 267        new = deepcopy(self)
 268        new.parent = self.parent
 269        return new
 270
 271    def add_comments(self, comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]]) -> None:
 272        if self.comments is None:
 273            self.comments = []
 274        if comments:
 275            for comment in comments:
 276                _, *meta = comment.split(SQLGLOT_META)
 277                if meta:
 278                    for kv in "".join(meta).split(","):
 279                        k, *v = kv.split("=")
 280                        value = v[0].strip() if v else True
 281                        self.meta[k.strip()] = value
 282                self.comments.append(comment)
 283
 284    def append(self, arg_key: str, value: t.Any) -> None:
 285        """
 286        Appends value to arg_key if it's a list or sets it as a new list.
 287
 288        Args:
 289            arg_key (str): name of the list expression arg
 290            value (Any): value to append to the list
 291        """
 292        if not isinstance(self.args.get(arg_key), list):
 293            self.args[arg_key] = []
 294        self.args[arg_key].append(value)
 295        self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 296
 297    def set(self, arg_key: str, value: t.Any) -> None:
 298        """
 299        Sets arg_key to value.
 300
 301        Args:
 302            arg_key: name of the expression arg.
 303            value: value to set the arg to.
 304        """
 305        if value is None:
 306            self.args.pop(arg_key, None)
 307            return
 308
 309        self.args[arg_key] = value
 310        self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 311
 312    def _set_parent(self, arg_key: str, value: t.Any) -> None:
 313        if hasattr(value, "parent"):
 314            value.parent = self
 315            value.arg_key = arg_key
 316        elif type(value) is list:
 317            for v in value:
 318                if hasattr(v, "parent"):
 319                    v.parent = self
 320                    v.arg_key = arg_key
 321
 322    @property
 323    def depth(self) -> int:
 324        """
 325        Returns the depth of this tree.
 326        """
 327        if self.parent:
 328            return self.parent.depth + 1
 329        return 0
 330
 331    def iter_expressions(self) -> t.Iterator[t.Tuple[str, Expression]]:
 332        """Yields the key and expression for all arguments, exploding list args."""
 333        for k, vs in self.args.items():
 334            if type(vs) is list:
 335                for v in vs:
 336                    if hasattr(v, "parent"):
 337                        yield k, v
 338            else:
 339                if hasattr(vs, "parent"):
 340                    yield k, vs
 341
 342    def find(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs: bool = True) -> t.Optional[E]:
 343        """
 344        Returns the first node in this tree which matches at least one of
 345        the specified types.
 346
 347        Args:
 348            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 349            bfs: whether to search the AST using the BFS algorithm (DFS is used if false).
 350
 351        Returns:
 352            The node which matches the criteria or None if no such node was found.
 353        """
 354        return next(self.find_all(*expression_types, bfs=bfs), None)
 355
 356    def find_all(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs: bool = True) -> t.Iterator[E]:
 357        """
 358        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree and only
 359        yields those that match at least one of the specified expression types.
 360
 361        Args:
 362            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 363            bfs: whether to search the AST using the BFS algorithm (DFS is used if false).
 364
 365        Returns:
 366            The generator object.
 367        """
 368        for expression, *_ in self.walk(bfs=bfs):
 369            if isinstance(expression, expression_types):
 370                yield expression
 371
 372    def find_ancestor(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E]) -> t.Optional[E]:
 373        """
 374        Returns a nearest parent matching expression_types.
 375
 376        Args:
 377            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 378
 379        Returns:
 380            The parent node.
 381        """
 382        ancestor = self.parent
 383        while ancestor and not isinstance(ancestor, expression_types):
 384            ancestor = ancestor.parent
 385        return ancestor  # type: ignore
 386
 387    @property
 388    def parent_select(self) -> t.Optional[Select]:
 389        """
 390        Returns the parent select statement.
 391        """
 392        return self.find_ancestor(Select)
 393
 394    @property
 395    def same_parent(self) -> bool:
 396        """Returns if the parent is the same class as itself."""
 397        return type(self.parent) is self.__class__
 398
 399    def root(self) -> Expression:
 400        """
 401        Returns the root expression of this tree.
 402        """
 403        expression = self
 404        while expression.parent:
 405            expression = expression.parent
 406        return expression
 407
 408    def walk(self, bfs=True, prune=None):
 409        """
 410        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree.
 411
 412        Args:
 413            bfs (bool): if set to True the BFS traversal order will be applied,
 414                otherwise the DFS traversal will be used instead.
 415            prune ((node, parent, arg_key) -> bool): callable that returns True if
 416                the generator should stop traversing this branch of the tree.
 417
 418        Returns:
 419            the generator object.
 420        """
 421        if bfs:
 422            yield from self.bfs(prune=prune)
 423        else:
 424            yield from self.dfs(prune=prune)
 425
 426    def dfs(self, parent=None, key=None, prune=None):
 427        """
 428        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
 429        the DFS (Depth-first) order.
 430
 431        Returns:
 432            The generator object.
 433        """
 434        parent = parent or self.parent
 435        yield self, parent, key
 436        if prune and prune(self, parent, key):
 437            return
 438
 439        for k, v in self.iter_expressions():
 440            yield from v.dfs(self, k, prune)
 441
 442    def bfs(self, prune=None):
 443        """
 444        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
 445        the BFS (Breadth-first) order.
 446
 447        Returns:
 448            The generator object.
 449        """
 450        queue = deque([(self, self.parent, None)])
 451
 452        while queue:
 453            item, parent, key = queue.popleft()
 454
 455            yield item, parent, key
 456            if prune and prune(item, parent, key):
 457                continue
 458
 459            for k, v in item.iter_expressions():
 460                queue.append((v, item, k))
 461
 462    def unnest(self):
 463        """
 464        Returns the first non parenthesis child or self.
 465        """
 466        expression = self
 467        while type(expression) is Paren:
 468            expression = expression.this
 469        return expression
 470
 471    def unalias(self):
 472        """
 473        Returns the inner expression if this is an Alias.
 474        """
 475        if isinstance(self, Alias):
 476            return self.this
 477        return self
 478
 479    def unnest_operands(self):
 480        """
 481        Returns unnested operands as a tuple.
 482        """
 483        return tuple(arg.unnest() for _, arg in self.iter_expressions())
 484
 485    def flatten(self, unnest=True):
 486        """
 487        Returns a generator which yields child nodes whose parents are the same class.
 488
 489        A AND B AND C -> [A, B, C]
 490        """
 491        for node, _, _ in self.dfs(prune=lambda n, p, *_: p and type(n) is not self.__class__):
 492            if type(node) is not self.__class__:
 493                yield node.unnest() if unnest and not isinstance(node, Subquery) else node
 494
 495    def __str__(self) -> str:
 496        return self.sql()
 497
 498    def __repr__(self) -> str:
 499        return _to_s(self)
 500
 501    def to_s(self) -> str:
 502        """
 503        Same as __repr__, but includes additional information which can be useful
 504        for debugging, like empty or missing args and the AST nodes' object IDs.
 505        """
 506        return _to_s(self, verbose=True)
 507
 508    def sql(self, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> str:
 509        """
 510        Returns SQL string representation of this tree.
 511
 512        Args:
 513            dialect: the dialect of the output SQL string (eg. "spark", "hive", "presto", "mysql").
 514            opts: other `sqlglot.generator.Generator` options.
 515
 516        Returns:
 517            The SQL string.
 518        """
 519        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 520
 521        return Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect).generate(self, **opts)
 522
 523    def transform(self, fun, *args, copy=True, **kwargs):
 524        """
 525        Recursively visits all tree nodes (excluding already transformed ones)
 526        and applies the given transformation function to each node.
 527
 528        Args:
 529            fun (function): a function which takes a node as an argument and returns a
 530                new transformed node or the same node without modifications. If the function
 531                returns None, then the corresponding node will be removed from the syntax tree.
 532            copy (bool): if set to True a new tree instance is constructed, otherwise the tree is
 533                modified in place.
 534
 535        Returns:
 536            The transformed tree.
 537        """
 538        node = self.copy() if copy else self
 539        new_node = fun(node, *args, **kwargs)
 540
 541        if new_node is None or not isinstance(new_node, Expression):
 542            return new_node
 543        if new_node is not node:
 544            new_node.parent = node.parent
 545            return new_node
 546
 547        replace_children(new_node, lambda child: child.transform(fun, *args, copy=False, **kwargs))
 548        return new_node
 549
 550    @t.overload
 551    def replace(self, expression: E) -> E:
 552        ...
 553
 554    @t.overload
 555    def replace(self, expression: None) -> None:
 556        ...
 557
 558    def replace(self, expression):
 559        """
 560        Swap out this expression with a new expression.
 561
 562        For example::
 563
 564            >>> tree = Select().select("x").from_("tbl")
 565            >>> tree.find(Column).replace(column("y"))
 566            Column(
 567              this=Identifier(this=y, quoted=False))
 568            >>> tree.sql()
 569            'SELECT y FROM tbl'
 570
 571        Args:
 572            expression: new node
 573
 574        Returns:
 575            The new expression or expressions.
 576        """
 577        if not self.parent:
 578            return expression
 579
 580        parent = self.parent
 581        self.parent = None
 582
 583        replace_children(parent, lambda child: expression if child is self else child)
 584        return expression
 585
 586    def pop(self: E) -> E:
 587        """
 588        Remove this expression from its AST.
 589
 590        Returns:
 591            The popped expression.
 592        """
 593        self.replace(None)
 594        return self
 595
 596    def assert_is(self, type_: t.Type[E]) -> E:
 597        """
 598        Assert that this `Expression` is an instance of `type_`.
 599
 600        If it is NOT an instance of `type_`, this raises an assertion error.
 601        Otherwise, this returns this expression.
 602
 603        Examples:
 604            This is useful for type security in chained expressions:
 605
 606            >>> import sqlglot
 607            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT x from y").assert_is(Select).select("z").sql()
 608            'SELECT x, z FROM y'
 609        """
 610        if not isinstance(self, type_):
 611            raise AssertionError(f"{self} is not {type_}.")
 612        return self
 613
 614    def error_messages(self, args: t.Optional[t.Sequence] = None) -> t.List[str]:
 615        """
 616        Checks if this expression is valid (e.g. all mandatory args are set).
 617
 618        Args:
 619            args: a sequence of values that were used to instantiate a Func expression. This is used
 620                to check that the provided arguments don't exceed the function argument limit.
 621
 622        Returns:
 623            A list of error messages for all possible errors that were found.
 624        """
 625        errors: t.List[str] = []
 626
 627        for k in self.args:
 628            if k not in self.arg_types:
 629                errors.append(f"Unexpected keyword: '{k}' for {self.__class__}")
 630        for k, mandatory in self.arg_types.items():
 631            v = self.args.get(k)
 632            if mandatory and (v is None or (isinstance(v, list) and not v)):
 633                errors.append(f"Required keyword: '{k}' missing for {self.__class__}")
 634
 635        if (
 636            args
 637            and isinstance(self, Func)
 638            and len(args) > len(self.arg_types)
 639            and not self.is_var_len_args
 640        ):
 641            errors.append(
 642                f"The number of provided arguments ({len(args)}) is greater than "
 643                f"the maximum number of supported arguments ({len(self.arg_types)})"
 644            )
 645
 646        return errors
 647
 648    def dump(self):
 649        """
 650        Dump this Expression to a JSON-serializable dict.
 651        """
 652        from sqlglot.serde import dump
 653
 654        return dump(self)
 655
 656    @classmethod
 657    def load(cls, obj):
 658        """
 659        Load a dict (as returned by `Expression.dump`) into an Expression instance.
 660        """
 661        from sqlglot.serde import load
 662
 663        return load(obj)
 664
 665    def and_(
 666        self,
 667        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
 668        dialect: DialectType = None,
 669        copy: bool = True,
 670        **opts,
 671    ) -> Condition:
 672        """
 673        AND this condition with one or multiple expressions.
 674
 675        Example:
 676            >>> condition("x=1").and_("y=1").sql()
 677            'x = 1 AND y = 1'
 678
 679        Args:
 680            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
 681                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 682            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 683            copy: whether or not to copy the involved expressions (only applies to Expressions).
 684            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 685
 686        Returns:
 687            The new And condition.
 688        """
 689        return and_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 690
 691    def or_(
 692        self,
 693        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
 694        dialect: DialectType = None,
 695        copy: bool = True,
 696        **opts,
 697    ) -> Condition:
 698        """
 699        OR this condition with one or multiple expressions.
 700
 701        Example:
 702            >>> condition("x=1").or_("y=1").sql()
 703            'x = 1 OR y = 1'
 704
 705        Args:
 706            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
 707                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 708            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 709            copy: whether or not to copy the involved expressions (only applies to Expressions).
 710            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 711
 712        Returns:
 713            The new Or condition.
 714        """
 715        return or_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 716
 717    def not_(self, copy: bool = True):
 718        """
 719        Wrap this condition with NOT.
 720
 721        Example:
 722            >>> condition("x=1").not_().sql()
 723            'NOT x = 1'
 724
 725        Args:
 726            copy: whether or not to copy this object.
 727
 728        Returns:
 729            The new Not instance.
 730        """
 731        return not_(self, copy=copy)
 732
 733    def as_(
 734        self,
 735        alias: str | Identifier,
 736        quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 737        dialect: DialectType = None,
 738        copy: bool = True,
 739        **opts,
 740    ) -> Alias:
 741        return alias_(self, alias, quoted=quoted, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 742
 743    def _binop(self, klass: t.Type[E], other: t.Any, reverse: bool = False) -> E:
 744        this = self.copy()
 745        other = convert(other, copy=True)
 746        if not isinstance(this, klass) and not isinstance(other, klass):
 747            this = _wrap(this, Binary)
 748            other = _wrap(other, Binary)
 749        if reverse:
 750            return klass(this=other, expression=this)
 751        return klass(this=this, expression=other)
 752
 753    def __getitem__(self, other: ExpOrStr | t.Tuple[ExpOrStr]) -> Bracket:
 754        return Bracket(
 755            this=self.copy(), expressions=[convert(e, copy=True) for e in ensure_list(other)]
 756        )
 757
 758    def __iter__(self) -> t.Iterator:
 759        if "expressions" in self.arg_types:
 760            return iter(self.args.get("expressions") or [])
 761        # We define this because __getitem__ converts Expression into an iterable, which is
 762        # problematic because one can hit infinite loops if they do "for x in some_expr: ..."
 763        # See: https://peps.python.org/pep-0234/
 764        raise TypeError(f"'{self.__class__.__name__}' object is not iterable")
 765
 766    def isin(
 767        self,
 768        *expressions: t.Any,
 769        query: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
 770        unnest: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] | t.Collection[ExpOrStr] = None,
 771        copy: bool = True,
 772        **opts,
 773    ) -> In:
 774        return In(
 775            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
 776            expressions=[convert(e, copy=copy) for e in expressions],
 777            query=maybe_parse(query, copy=copy, **opts) if query else None,
 778            unnest=(
 779                Unnest(
 780                    expressions=[
 781                        maybe_parse(t.cast(ExpOrStr, e), copy=copy, **opts)
 782                        for e in ensure_list(unnest)
 783                    ]
 784                )
 785                if unnest
 786                else None
 787            ),
 788        )
 789
 790    def between(self, low: t.Any, high: t.Any, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Between:
 791        return Between(
 792            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
 793            low=convert(low, copy=copy, **opts),
 794            high=convert(high, copy=copy, **opts),
 795        )
 796
 797    def is_(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> Is:
 798        return self._binop(Is, other)
 799
 800    def like(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> Like:
 801        return self._binop(Like, other)
 802
 803    def ilike(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> ILike:
 804        return self._binop(ILike, other)
 805
 806    def eq(self, other: t.Any) -> EQ:
 807        return self._binop(EQ, other)
 808
 809    def neq(self, other: t.Any) -> NEQ:
 810        return self._binop(NEQ, other)
 811
 812    def rlike(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> RegexpLike:
 813        return self._binop(RegexpLike, other)
 814
 815    def div(self, other: ExpOrStr, typed: bool = False, safe: bool = False) -> Div:
 816        div = self._binop(Div, other)
 817        div.args["typed"] = typed
 818        div.args["safe"] = safe
 819        return div
 820
 821    def desc(self, nulls_first: bool = False) -> Ordered:
 822        return Ordered(this=self.copy(), desc=True, nulls_first=nulls_first)
 823
 824    def __lt__(self, other: t.Any) -> LT:
 825        return self._binop(LT, other)
 826
 827    def __le__(self, other: t.Any) -> LTE:
 828        return self._binop(LTE, other)
 829
 830    def __gt__(self, other: t.Any) -> GT:
 831        return self._binop(GT, other)
 832
 833    def __ge__(self, other: t.Any) -> GTE:
 834        return self._binop(GTE, other)
 835
 836    def __add__(self, other: t.Any) -> Add:
 837        return self._binop(Add, other)
 838
 839    def __radd__(self, other: t.Any) -> Add:
 840        return self._binop(Add, other, reverse=True)
 841
 842    def __sub__(self, other: t.Any) -> Sub:
 843        return self._binop(Sub, other)
 844
 845    def __rsub__(self, other: t.Any) -> Sub:
 846        return self._binop(Sub, other, reverse=True)
 847
 848    def __mul__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mul:
 849        return self._binop(Mul, other)
 850
 851    def __rmul__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mul:
 852        return self._binop(Mul, other, reverse=True)
 853
 854    def __truediv__(self, other: t.Any) -> Div:
 855        return self._binop(Div, other)
 856
 857    def __rtruediv__(self, other: t.Any) -> Div:
 858        return self._binop(Div, other, reverse=True)
 859
 860    def __floordiv__(self, other: t.Any) -> IntDiv:
 861        return self._binop(IntDiv, other)
 862
 863    def __rfloordiv__(self, other: t.Any) -> IntDiv:
 864        return self._binop(IntDiv, other, reverse=True)
 865
 866    def __mod__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mod:
 867        return self._binop(Mod, other)
 868
 869    def __rmod__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mod:
 870        return self._binop(Mod, other, reverse=True)
 871
 872    def __pow__(self, other: t.Any) -> Pow:
 873        return self._binop(Pow, other)
 874
 875    def __rpow__(self, other: t.Any) -> Pow:
 876        return self._binop(Pow, other, reverse=True)
 877
 878    def __and__(self, other: t.Any) -> And:
 879        return self._binop(And, other)
 880
 881    def __rand__(self, other: t.Any) -> And:
 882        return self._binop(And, other, reverse=True)
 883
 884    def __or__(self, other: t.Any) -> Or:
 885        return self._binop(Or, other)
 886
 887    def __ror__(self, other: t.Any) -> Or:
 888        return self._binop(Or, other, reverse=True)
 889
 890    def __neg__(self) -> Neg:
 891        return Neg(this=_wrap(self.copy(), Binary))
 892
 893    def __invert__(self) -> Not:
 894        return not_(self.copy())
 895
 896
 897IntoType = t.Union[
 898    str,
 899    t.Type[Expression],
 900    t.Collection[t.Union[str, t.Type[Expression]]],
 901]
 902ExpOrStr = t.Union[str, Expression]
 903
 904
 905class Condition(Expression):
 906    """Logical conditions like x AND y, or simply x"""
 907
 908
 909class Predicate(Condition):
 910    """Relationships like x = y, x > 1, x >= y."""
 911
 912
 913class DerivedTable(Expression):
 914    @property
 915    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
 916        return self.this.selects if isinstance(self.this, Subqueryable) else []
 917
 918    @property
 919    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
 920        return [select.output_name for select in self.selects]
 921
 922
 923class Unionable(Expression):
 924    def union(
 925        self, expression: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
 926    ) -> Union:
 927        """
 928        Builds a UNION expression.
 929
 930        Example:
 931            >>> import sqlglot
 932            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").union("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
 933            'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
 934
 935        Args:
 936            expression: the SQL code string.
 937                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 938            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
 939            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 940            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 941
 942        Returns:
 943            The new Union expression.
 944        """
 945        return union(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
 946
 947    def intersect(
 948        self, expression: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
 949    ) -> Unionable:
 950        """
 951        Builds an INTERSECT expression.
 952
 953        Example:
 954            >>> import sqlglot
 955            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").intersect("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
 956            'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
 957
 958        Args:
 959            expression: the SQL code string.
 960                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 961            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
 962            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 963            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 964
 965        Returns:
 966            The new Intersect expression.
 967        """
 968        return intersect(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
 969
 970    def except_(
 971        self, expression: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
 972    ) -> Unionable:
 973        """
 974        Builds an EXCEPT expression.
 975
 976        Example:
 977            >>> import sqlglot
 978            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").except_("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
 979            'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
 980
 981        Args:
 982            expression: the SQL code string.
 983                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 984            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
 985            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 986            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 987
 988        Returns:
 989            The new Except expression.
 990        """
 991        return except_(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
 992
 993
 994class UDTF(DerivedTable, Unionable):
 995    @property
 996    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
 997        alias = self.args.get("alias")
 998        return alias.columns if alias else []
 999
1000
1001class Cache(Expression):
1002    arg_types = {
1003        "this": True,
1004        "lazy": False,
1005        "options": False,
1006        "expression": False,
1007    }
1008
1009
1010class Uncache(Expression):
1011    arg_types = {"this": True, "exists": False}
1012
1013
1014class Refresh(Expression):
1015    pass
1016
1017
1018class DDL(Expression):
1019    @property
1020    def ctes(self):
1021        with_ = self.args.get("with")
1022        if not with_:
1023            return []
1024        return with_.expressions
1025
1026    @property
1027    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
1028        if isinstance(self.expression, Subqueryable):
1029            return self.expression.named_selects
1030        return []
1031
1032    @property
1033    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
1034        if isinstance(self.expression, Subqueryable):
1035            return self.expression.selects
1036        return []
1037
1038
1039class DML(Expression):
1040    def returning(
1041        self,
1042        expression: ExpOrStr,
1043        dialect: DialectType = None,
1044        copy: bool = True,
1045        **opts,
1046    ) -> DML:
1047        """
1048        Set the RETURNING expression. Not supported by all dialects.
1049
1050        Example:
1051            >>> delete("tbl").returning("*", dialect="postgres").sql()
1052            'DELETE FROM tbl RETURNING *'
1053
1054        Args:
1055            expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
1056                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1057            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1058            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1059            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1060
1061        Returns:
1062            Delete: the modified expression.
1063        """
1064        return _apply_builder(
1065            expression=expression,
1066            instance=self,
1067            arg="returning",
1068            prefix="RETURNING",
1069            dialect=dialect,
1070            copy=copy,
1071            into=Returning,
1072            **opts,
1073        )
1074
1075
1076class Create(DDL):
1077    arg_types = {
1078        "with": False,
1079        "this": True,
1080        "kind": True,
1081        "expression": False,
1082        "exists": False,
1083        "properties": False,
1084        "replace": False,
1085        "unique": False,
1086        "indexes": False,
1087        "no_schema_binding": False,
1088        "begin": False,
1089        "end": False,
1090        "clone": False,
1091    }
1092
1093    @property
1094    def kind(self) -> t.Optional[str]:
1095        kind = self.args.get("kind")
1096        return kind and kind.upper()
1097
1098
1099# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/sql/create-clone
1100# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/data-definition-language#create_table_clone_statement
1101# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/data-definition-language#create_table_copy
1102class Clone(Expression):
1103    arg_types = {"this": True, "shallow": False, "copy": False}
1104
1105
1106class Describe(Expression):
1107    arg_types = {"this": True, "extended": False, "kind": False, "expressions": False}
1108
1109
1110class Kill(Expression):
1111    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
1112
1113
1114class Pragma(Expression):
1115    pass
1116
1117
1118class Set(Expression):
1119    arg_types = {"expressions": False, "unset": False, "tag": False}
1120
1121
1122class Heredoc(Expression):
1123    arg_types = {"this": True, "tag": False}
1124
1125
1126class SetItem(Expression):
1127    arg_types = {
1128        "this": False,
1129        "expressions": False,
1130        "kind": False,
1131        "collate": False,  # MySQL SET NAMES statement
1132        "global": False,
1133    }
1134
1135
1136class Show(Expression):
1137    arg_types = {
1138        "this": True,
1139        "history": False,
1140        "terse": False,
1141        "target": False,
1142        "offset": False,
1143        "starts_with": False,
1144        "limit": False,
1145        "from": False,
1146        "like": False,
1147        "where": False,
1148        "db": False,
1149        "scope": False,
1150        "scope_kind": False,
1151        "full": False,
1152        "mutex": False,
1153        "query": False,
1154        "channel": False,
1155        "global": False,
1156        "log": False,
1157        "position": False,
1158        "types": False,
1159    }
1160
1161
1162class UserDefinedFunction(Expression):
1163    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "wrapped": False}
1164
1165
1166class CharacterSet(Expression):
1167    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": False}
1168
1169
1170class With(Expression):
1171    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "recursive": False}
1172
1173    @property
1174    def recursive(self) -> bool:
1175        return bool(self.args.get("recursive"))
1176
1177
1178class WithinGroup(Expression):
1179    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
1180
1181
1182# clickhouse supports scalar ctes
1183# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/select/with
1184class CTE(DerivedTable):
1185    arg_types = {"this": True, "alias": True, "scalar": False}
1186
1187
1188class TableAlias(Expression):
1189    arg_types = {"this": False, "columns": False}
1190
1191    @property
1192    def columns(self):
1193        return self.args.get("columns") or []
1194
1195
1196class BitString(Condition):
1197    pass
1198
1199
1200class HexString(Condition):
1201    pass
1202
1203
1204class ByteString(Condition):
1205    pass
1206
1207
1208class RawString(Condition):
1209    pass
1210
1211
1212class UnicodeString(Condition):
1213    arg_types = {"this": True, "escape": False}
1214
1215
1216class Column(Condition):
1217    arg_types = {"this": True, "table": False, "db": False, "catalog": False, "join_mark": False}
1218
1219    @property
1220    def table(self) -> str:
1221        return self.text("table")
1222
1223    @property
1224    def db(self) -> str:
1225        return self.text("db")
1226
1227    @property
1228    def catalog(self) -> str:
1229        return self.text("catalog")
1230
1231    @property
1232    def output_name(self) -> str:
1233        return self.name
1234
1235    @property
1236    def parts(self) -> t.List[Identifier]:
1237        """Return the parts of a column in order catalog, db, table, name."""
1238        return [
1239            t.cast(Identifier, self.args[part])
1240            for part in ("catalog", "db", "table", "this")
1241            if self.args.get(part)
1242        ]
1243
1244    def to_dot(self) -> Dot | Identifier:
1245        """Converts the column into a dot expression."""
1246        parts = self.parts
1247        parent = self.parent
1248
1249        while parent:
1250            if isinstance(parent, Dot):
1251                parts.append(parent.expression)
1252            parent = parent.parent
1253
1254        return Dot.build(deepcopy(parts)) if len(parts) > 1 else parts[0]
1255
1256
1257class ColumnPosition(Expression):
1258    arg_types = {"this": False, "position": True}
1259
1260
1261class ColumnDef(Expression):
1262    arg_types = {
1263        "this": True,
1264        "kind": False,
1265        "constraints": False,
1266        "exists": False,
1267        "position": False,
1268    }
1269
1270    @property
1271    def constraints(self) -> t.List[ColumnConstraint]:
1272        return self.args.get("constraints") or []
1273
1274
1275class AlterColumn(Expression):
1276    arg_types = {
1277        "this": True,
1278        "dtype": False,
1279        "collate": False,
1280        "using": False,
1281        "default": False,
1282        "drop": False,
1283        "comment": False,
1284    }
1285
1286
1287class RenameColumn(Expression):
1288    arg_types = {"this": True, "to": True, "exists": False}
1289
1290
1291class RenameTable(Expression):
1292    pass
1293
1294
1295class SwapTable(Expression):
1296    pass
1297
1298
1299class Comment(Expression):
1300    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": True, "exists": False}
1301
1302
1303class Comprehension(Expression):
1304    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "iterator": True, "condition": False}
1305
1306
1307# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/engines/table-engines/mergetree-family/mergetree#mergetree-table-ttl
1308class MergeTreeTTLAction(Expression):
1309    arg_types = {
1310        "this": True,
1311        "delete": False,
1312        "recompress": False,
1313        "to_disk": False,
1314        "to_volume": False,
1315    }
1316
1317
1318# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/engines/table-engines/mergetree-family/mergetree#mergetree-table-ttl
1319class MergeTreeTTL(Expression):
1320    arg_types = {
1321        "expressions": True,
1322        "where": False,
1323        "group": False,
1324        "aggregates": False,
1325    }
1326
1327
1328# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/create-table.html
1329class IndexConstraintOption(Expression):
1330    arg_types = {
1331        "key_block_size": False,
1332        "using": False,
1333        "parser": False,
1334        "comment": False,
1335        "visible": False,
1336        "engine_attr": False,
1337        "secondary_engine_attr": False,
1338    }
1339
1340
1341class ColumnConstraint(Expression):
1342    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": True}
1343
1344    @property
1345    def kind(self) -> ColumnConstraintKind:
1346        return self.args["kind"]
1347
1348
1349class ColumnConstraintKind(Expression):
1350    pass
1351
1352
1353class AutoIncrementColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1354    pass
1355
1356
1357class PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1358    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1359
1360
1361class CaseSpecificColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1362    arg_types = {"not_": True}
1363
1364
1365class CharacterSetColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1366    arg_types = {"this": True}
1367
1368
1369class CheckColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1370    pass
1371
1372
1373class ClusteredColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1374    pass
1375
1376
1377class CollateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1378    pass
1379
1380
1381class CommentColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1382    pass
1383
1384
1385class CompressColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1386    pass
1387
1388
1389class DateFormatColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1390    arg_types = {"this": True}
1391
1392
1393class DefaultColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1394    pass
1395
1396
1397class EncodeColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1398    pass
1399
1400
1401class GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1402    # this: True -> ALWAYS, this: False -> BY DEFAULT
1403    arg_types = {
1404        "this": False,
1405        "expression": False,
1406        "on_null": False,
1407        "start": False,
1408        "increment": False,
1409        "minvalue": False,
1410        "maxvalue": False,
1411        "cycle": False,
1412    }
1413
1414
1415class GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1416    arg_types = {"start": False, "hidden": False}
1417
1418
1419# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/create-table.html
1420class IndexColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1421    arg_types = {
1422        "this": False,
1423        "schema": True,
1424        "kind": False,
1425        "index_type": False,
1426        "options": False,
1427    }
1428
1429
1430class InlineLengthColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1431    pass
1432
1433
1434class NonClusteredColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1435    pass
1436
1437
1438class NotForReplicationColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1439    arg_types = {}
1440
1441
1442class NotNullColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1443    arg_types = {"allow_null": False}
1444
1445
1446# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.7/en/timestamp-initialization.html
1447class OnUpdateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1448    pass
1449
1450
1451# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/sql/create-external-table#optional-parameters
1452class TransformColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1453    pass
1454
1455
1456class PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1457    arg_types = {"desc": False}
1458
1459
1460class TitleColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1461    pass
1462
1463
1464class UniqueColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1465    arg_types = {"this": False, "index_type": False}
1466
1467
1468class UppercaseColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1469    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
1470
1471
1472class PathColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1473    pass
1474
1475
1476# computed column expression
1477# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/statements/create-table-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
1478class ComputedColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1479    arg_types = {"this": True, "persisted": False, "not_null": False}
1480
1481
1482class Constraint(Expression):
1483    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
1484
1485
1486class Delete(DML):
1487    arg_types = {
1488        "with": False,
1489        "this": False,
1490        "using": False,
1491        "where": False,
1492        "returning": False,
1493        "limit": False,
1494        "tables": False,  # Multiple-Table Syntax (MySQL)
1495    }
1496
1497    def delete(
1498        self,
1499        table: ExpOrStr,
1500        dialect: DialectType = None,
1501        copy: bool = True,
1502        **opts,
1503    ) -> Delete:
1504        """
1505        Create a DELETE expression or replace the table on an existing DELETE expression.
1506
1507        Example:
1508            >>> delete("tbl").sql()
1509            'DELETE FROM tbl'
1510
1511        Args:
1512            table: the table from which to delete.
1513            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1514            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1515            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1516
1517        Returns:
1518            Delete: the modified expression.
1519        """
1520        return _apply_builder(
1521            expression=table,
1522            instance=self,
1523            arg="this",
1524            dialect=dialect,
1525            into=Table,
1526            copy=copy,
1527            **opts,
1528        )
1529
1530    def where(
1531        self,
1532        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
1533        append: bool = True,
1534        dialect: DialectType = None,
1535        copy: bool = True,
1536        **opts,
1537    ) -> Delete:
1538        """
1539        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
1540
1541        Example:
1542            >>> delete("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
1543            "DELETE FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
1544
1545        Args:
1546            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1547                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1548                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1549            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1550                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1551            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1552            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1553            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1554
1555        Returns:
1556            Delete: the modified expression.
1557        """
1558        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
1559            *expressions,
1560            instance=self,
1561            arg="where",
1562            append=append,
1563            into=Where,
1564            dialect=dialect,
1565            copy=copy,
1566            **opts,
1567        )
1568
1569
1570class Drop(Expression):
1571    arg_types = {
1572        "this": False,
1573        "kind": False,
1574        "exists": False,
1575        "temporary": False,
1576        "materialized": False,
1577        "cascade": False,
1578        "constraints": False,
1579        "purge": False,
1580    }
1581
1582
1583class Filter(Expression):
1584    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1585
1586
1587class Check(Expression):
1588    pass
1589
1590
1591# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/constructs/connect-by
1592class Connect(Expression):
1593    arg_types = {"start": False, "connect": True}
1594
1595
1596class Prior(Expression):
1597    pass
1598
1599
1600class Directory(Expression):
1601    # https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.0.0-preview/sql-ref-syntax-dml-insert-overwrite-directory-hive.html
1602    arg_types = {"this": True, "local": False, "row_format": False}
1603
1604
1605class ForeignKey(Expression):
1606    arg_types = {
1607        "expressions": True,
1608        "reference": False,
1609        "delete": False,
1610        "update": False,
1611    }
1612
1613
1614class ColumnPrefix(Expression):
1615    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1616
1617
1618class PrimaryKey(Expression):
1619    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "options": False}
1620
1621
1622# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/sql-selectinto.html
1623# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/r_SELECT_INTO.html#r_SELECT_INTO-examples
1624class Into(Expression):
1625    arg_types = {"this": True, "temporary": False, "unlogged": False}
1626
1627
1628class From(Expression):
1629    @property
1630    def name(self) -> str:
1631        return self.this.name
1632
1633    @property
1634    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
1635        return self.this.alias_or_name
1636
1637
1638class Having(Expression):
1639    pass
1640
1641
1642class Hint(Expression):
1643    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1644
1645
1646class JoinHint(Expression):
1647    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
1648
1649
1650class Identifier(Expression):
1651    arg_types = {"this": True, "quoted": False, "global": False, "temporary": False}
1652
1653    @property
1654    def quoted(self) -> bool:
1655        return bool(self.args.get("quoted"))
1656
1657    @property
1658    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
1659        return (self.this, self.quoted)
1660
1661    @property
1662    def output_name(self) -> str:
1663        return self.name
1664
1665
1666# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/indexes-opclass.html
1667class Opclass(Expression):
1668    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1669
1670
1671class Index(Expression):
1672    arg_types = {
1673        "this": False,
1674        "table": False,
1675        "using": False,
1676        "where": False,
1677        "columns": False,
1678        "unique": False,
1679        "primary": False,
1680        "amp": False,  # teradata
1681        "include": False,
1682        "partition_by": False,  # teradata
1683    }
1684
1685
1686class Insert(DDL, DML):
1687    arg_types = {
1688        "with": False,
1689        "this": True,
1690        "expression": False,
1691        "conflict": False,
1692        "returning": False,
1693        "overwrite": False,
1694        "exists": False,
1695        "partition": False,
1696        "alternative": False,
1697        "where": False,
1698        "ignore": False,
1699        "by_name": False,
1700    }
1701
1702    def with_(
1703        self,
1704        alias: ExpOrStr,
1705        as_: ExpOrStr,
1706        recursive: t.Optional[bool] = None,
1707        append: bool = True,
1708        dialect: DialectType = None,
1709        copy: bool = True,
1710        **opts,
1711    ) -> Insert:
1712        """
1713        Append to or set the common table expressions.
1714
1715        Example:
1716            >>> insert("SELECT x FROM cte", "t").with_("cte", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").sql()
1717            'WITH cte AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) INSERT INTO t SELECT x FROM cte'
1718
1719        Args:
1720            alias: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
1721                If an `Expression` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1722            as_: the SQL code string to parse as the table expression.
1723                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1724            recursive: set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to `False`.
1725            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1726                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
1727            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1728            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1729            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1730
1731        Returns:
1732            The modified expression.
1733        """
1734        return _apply_cte_builder(
1735            self, alias, as_, recursive=recursive, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts
1736        )
1737
1738
1739class OnConflict(Expression):
1740    arg_types = {
1741        "duplicate": False,
1742        "expressions": False,
1743        "nothing": False,
1744        "key": False,
1745        "constraint": False,
1746    }
1747
1748
1749class Returning(Expression):
1750    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "into": False}
1751
1752
1753# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/charset-introducer.html
1754class Introducer(Expression):
1755    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1756
1757
1758# national char, like n'utf8'
1759class National(Expression):
1760    pass
1761
1762
1763class LoadData(Expression):
1764    arg_types = {
1765        "this": True,
1766        "local": False,
1767        "overwrite": False,
1768        "inpath": True,
1769        "partition": False,
1770        "input_format": False,
1771        "serde": False,
1772    }
1773
1774
1775class Partition(Expression):
1776    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1777
1778
1779class Fetch(Expression):
1780    arg_types = {
1781        "direction": False,
1782        "count": False,
1783        "percent": False,
1784        "with_ties": False,
1785    }
1786
1787
1788class Group(Expression):
1789    arg_types = {
1790        "expressions": False,
1791        "grouping_sets": False,
1792        "cube": False,
1793        "rollup": False,
1794        "totals": False,
1795        "all": False,
1796    }
1797
1798
1799class Lambda(Expression):
1800    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
1801
1802
1803class Limit(Expression):
1804    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True, "offset": False, "expressions": False}
1805
1806
1807class Literal(Condition):
1808    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_string": True}
1809
1810    @property
1811    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
1812        return (self.this, self.args.get("is_string"))
1813
1814    @classmethod
1815    def number(cls, number) -> Literal:
1816        return cls(this=str(number), is_string=False)
1817
1818    @classmethod
1819    def string(cls, string) -> Literal:
1820        return cls(this=str(string), is_string=True)
1821
1822    @property
1823    def output_name(self) -> str:
1824        return self.name
1825
1826
1827class Join(Expression):
1828    arg_types = {
1829        "this": True,
1830        "on": False,
1831        "side": False,
1832        "kind": False,
1833        "using": False,
1834        "method": False,
1835        "global": False,
1836        "hint": False,
1837    }
1838
1839    @property
1840    def method(self) -> str:
1841        return self.text("method").upper()
1842
1843    @property
1844    def kind(self) -> str:
1845        return self.text("kind").upper()
1846
1847    @property
1848    def side(self) -> str:
1849        return self.text("side").upper()
1850
1851    @property
1852    def hint(self) -> str:
1853        return self.text("hint").upper()
1854
1855    @property
1856    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
1857        return self.this.alias_or_name
1858
1859    def on(
1860        self,
1861        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
1862        append: bool = True,
1863        dialect: DialectType = None,
1864        copy: bool = True,
1865        **opts,
1866    ) -> Join:
1867        """
1868        Append to or set the ON expressions.
1869
1870        Example:
1871            >>> import sqlglot
1872            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).on("y = 1").sql()
1873            'JOIN x ON y = 1'
1874
1875        Args:
1876            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1877                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1878                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1879            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1880                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1881            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1882            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1883            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1884
1885        Returns:
1886            The modified Join expression.
1887        """
1888        join = _apply_conjunction_builder(
1889            *expressions,
1890            instance=self,
1891            arg="on",
1892            append=append,
1893            dialect=dialect,
1894            copy=copy,
1895            **opts,
1896        )
1897
1898        if join.kind == "CROSS":
1899            join.set("kind", None)
1900
1901        return join
1902
1903    def using(
1904        self,
1905        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
1906        append: bool = True,
1907        dialect: DialectType = None,
1908        copy: bool = True,
1909        **opts,
1910    ) -> Join:
1911        """
1912        Append to or set the USING expressions.
1913
1914        Example:
1915            >>> import sqlglot
1916            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).using("foo", "bla").sql()
1917            'JOIN x USING (foo, bla)'
1918
1919        Args:
1920            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1921                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1922            append: if `True`, concatenate the new expressions to the existing "using" list.
1923                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1924            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1925            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1926            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1927
1928        Returns:
1929            The modified Join expression.
1930        """
1931        join = _apply_list_builder(
1932            *expressions,
1933            instance=self,
1934            arg="using",
1935            append=append,
1936            dialect=dialect,
1937            copy=copy,
1938            **opts,
1939        )
1940
1941        if join.kind == "CROSS":
1942            join.set("kind", None)
1943
1944        return join
1945
1946
1947class Lateral(UDTF):
1948    arg_types = {
1949        "this": True,
1950        "view": False,
1951        "outer": False,
1952        "alias": False,
1953        "cross_apply": False,  # True -> CROSS APPLY, False -> OUTER APPLY
1954    }
1955
1956
1957class MatchRecognize(Expression):
1958    arg_types = {
1959        "partition_by": False,
1960        "order": False,
1961        "measures": False,
1962        "rows": False,
1963        "after": False,
1964        "pattern": False,
1965        "define": False,
1966        "alias": False,
1967    }
1968
1969
1970# Clickhouse FROM FINAL modifier
1971# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/select/from/#final-modifier
1972class Final(Expression):
1973    pass
1974
1975
1976class Offset(Expression):
1977    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True, "expressions": False}
1978
1979
1980class Order(Expression):
1981    arg_types = {
1982        "this": False,
1983        "expressions": True,
1984        "interpolate": False,
1985        "siblings": False,
1986    }
1987
1988
1989# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/select/order-by#order-by-expr-with-fill-modifier
1990class WithFill(Expression):
1991    arg_types = {"from": False, "to": False, "step": False}
1992
1993
1994# hive specific sorts
1995# https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/Hive/LanguageManual+SortBy
1996class Cluster(Order):
1997    pass
1998
1999
2000class Distribute(Order):
2001    pass
2002
2003
2004class Sort(Order):
2005    pass
2006
2007
2008class Ordered(Expression):
2009    arg_types = {"this": True, "desc": False, "nulls_first": True, "with_fill": False}
2010
2011
2012class Property(Expression):
2013    arg_types = {"this": True, "value": True}
2014
2015
2016class AlgorithmProperty(Property):
2017    arg_types = {"this": True}
2018
2019
2020class AutoIncrementProperty(Property):
2021    arg_types = {"this": True}
2022
2023
2024# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/prescriptive-guidance/latest/materialized-views-redshift/refreshing-materialized-views.html
2025class AutoRefreshProperty(Property):
2026    arg_types = {"this": True}
2027
2028
2029class BlockCompressionProperty(Property):
2030    arg_types = {
2031        "autotemp": False,
2032        "always": False,
2033        "default": False,
2034        "manual": False,
2035        "never": False,
2036    }
2037
2038
2039class CharacterSetProperty(Property):
2040    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": True}
2041
2042
2043class ChecksumProperty(Property):
2044    arg_types = {"on": False, "default": False}
2045
2046
2047class CollateProperty(Property):
2048    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": False}
2049
2050
2051class CopyGrantsProperty(Property):
2052    arg_types = {}
2053
2054
2055class DataBlocksizeProperty(Property):
2056    arg_types = {
2057        "size": False,
2058        "units": False,
2059        "minimum": False,
2060        "maximum": False,
2061        "default": False,
2062    }
2063
2064
2065class DefinerProperty(Property):
2066    arg_types = {"this": True}
2067
2068
2069class DistKeyProperty(Property):
2070    arg_types = {"this": True}
2071
2072
2073class DistStyleProperty(Property):
2074    arg_types = {"this": True}
2075
2076
2077class EngineProperty(Property):
2078    arg_types = {"this": True}
2079
2080
2081class HeapProperty(Property):
2082    arg_types = {}
2083
2084
2085class ToTableProperty(Property):
2086    arg_types = {"this": True}
2087
2088
2089class ExecuteAsProperty(Property):
2090    arg_types = {"this": True}
2091
2092
2093class ExternalProperty(Property):
2094    arg_types = {"this": False}
2095
2096
2097class FallbackProperty(Property):
2098    arg_types = {"no": True, "protection": False}
2099
2100
2101class FileFormatProperty(Property):
2102    arg_types = {"this": True}
2103
2104
2105class FreespaceProperty(Property):
2106    arg_types = {"this": True, "percent": False}
2107
2108
2109class InheritsProperty(Property):
2110    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2111
2112
2113class InputModelProperty(Property):
2114    arg_types = {"this": True}
2115
2116
2117class OutputModelProperty(Property):
2118    arg_types = {"this": True}
2119
2120
2121class IsolatedLoadingProperty(Property):
2122    arg_types = {
2123        "no": False,
2124        "concurrent": False,
2125        "for_all": False,
2126        "for_insert": False,
2127        "for_none": False,
2128    }
2129
2130
2131class JournalProperty(Property):
2132    arg_types = {
2133        "no": False,
2134        "dual": False,
2135        "before": False,
2136        "local": False,
2137        "after": False,
2138    }
2139
2140
2141class LanguageProperty(Property):
2142    arg_types = {"this": True}
2143
2144
2145# spark ddl
2146class ClusteredByProperty(Property):
2147    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "sorted_by": False, "buckets": True}
2148
2149
2150class DictProperty(Property):
2151    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "settings": False}
2152
2153
2154class DictSubProperty(Property):
2155    pass
2156
2157
2158class DictRange(Property):
2159    arg_types = {"this": True, "min": True, "max": True}
2160
2161
2162# Clickhouse CREATE ... ON CLUSTER modifier
2163# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/distributed-ddl
2164class OnCluster(Property):
2165    arg_types = {"this": True}
2166
2167
2168class LikeProperty(Property):
2169    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
2170
2171
2172class LocationProperty(Property):
2173    arg_types = {"this": True}
2174
2175
2176class LockingProperty(Property):
2177    arg_types = {
2178        "this": False,
2179        "kind": True,
2180        "for_or_in": False,
2181        "lock_type": True,
2182        "override": False,
2183    }
2184
2185
2186class LogProperty(Property):
2187    arg_types = {"no": True}
2188
2189
2190class MaterializedProperty(Property):
2191    arg_types = {"this": False}
2192
2193
2194class MergeBlockRatioProperty(Property):
2195    arg_types = {"this": False, "no": False, "default": False, "percent": False}
2196
2197
2198class NoPrimaryIndexProperty(Property):
2199    arg_types = {}
2200
2201
2202class OnProperty(Property):
2203    arg_types = {"this": True}
2204
2205
2206class OnCommitProperty(Property):
2207    arg_types = {"delete": False}
2208
2209
2210class PartitionedByProperty(Property):
2211    arg_types = {"this": True}
2212
2213
2214# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-createtable.html
2215class PartitionBoundSpec(Expression):
2216    # this -> IN / MODULUS, expression -> REMAINDER, from_expressions -> FROM (...), to_expressions -> TO (...)
2217    arg_types = {
2218        "this": False,
2219        "expression": False,
2220        "from_expressions": False,
2221        "to_expressions": False,
2222    }
2223
2224
2225class PartitionedOfProperty(Property):
2226    # this -> parent_table (schema), expression -> FOR VALUES ... / DEFAULT
2227    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2228
2229
2230class RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty(Property):
2231    arg_types = {"this": True}
2232
2233
2234class ReturnsProperty(Property):
2235    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_table": False, "table": False}
2236
2237
2238class RowFormatProperty(Property):
2239    arg_types = {"this": True}
2240
2241
2242class RowFormatDelimitedProperty(Property):
2243    # https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/hive/languagemanual+dml
2244    arg_types = {
2245        "fields": False,
2246        "escaped": False,
2247        "collection_items": False,
2248        "map_keys": False,
2249        "lines": False,
2250        "null": False,
2251        "serde": False,
2252    }
2253
2254
2255class RowFormatSerdeProperty(Property):
2256    arg_types = {"this": True, "serde_properties": False}
2257
2258
2259# https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.1.2/sql-ref-syntax-qry-select-transform.html
2260class QueryTransform(Expression):
2261    arg_types = {
2262        "expressions": True,
2263        "command_script": True,
2264        "schema": False,
2265        "row_format_before": False,
2266        "record_writer": False,
2267        "row_format_after": False,
2268        "record_reader": False,
2269    }
2270
2271
2272class SampleProperty(Property):
2273    arg_types = {"this": True}
2274
2275
2276class SchemaCommentProperty(Property):
2277    arg_types = {"this": True}
2278
2279
2280class SerdeProperties(Property):
2281    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2282
2283
2284class SetProperty(Property):
2285    arg_types = {"multi": True}
2286
2287
2288class SetConfigProperty(Property):
2289    arg_types = {"this": True}
2290
2291
2292class SettingsProperty(Property):
2293    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2294
2295
2296class SortKeyProperty(Property):
2297    arg_types = {"this": True, "compound": False}
2298
2299
2300class SqlReadWriteProperty(Property):
2301    arg_types = {"this": True}
2302
2303
2304class SqlSecurityProperty(Property):
2305    arg_types = {"definer": True}
2306
2307
2308class StabilityProperty(Property):
2309    arg_types = {"this": True}
2310
2311
2312class TemporaryProperty(Property):
2313    arg_types = {}
2314
2315
2316class TransformModelProperty(Property):
2317    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2318
2319
2320class TransientProperty(Property):
2321    arg_types = {"this": False}
2322
2323
2324class VolatileProperty(Property):
2325    arg_types = {"this": False}
2326
2327
2328class WithDataProperty(Property):
2329    arg_types = {"no": True, "statistics": False}
2330
2331
2332class WithJournalTableProperty(Property):
2333    arg_types = {"this": True}
2334
2335
2336class WithSystemVersioningProperty(Property):
2337    # this -> history table name, expression -> data consistency check
2338    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False}
2339
2340
2341class Properties(Expression):
2342    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2343
2344    NAME_TO_PROPERTY = {
2345        "ALGORITHM": AlgorithmProperty,
2346        "AUTO_INCREMENT": AutoIncrementProperty,
2347        "CHARACTER SET": CharacterSetProperty,
2348        "CLUSTERED_BY": ClusteredByProperty,
2349        "COLLATE": CollateProperty,
2350        "COMMENT": SchemaCommentProperty,
2351        "DEFINER": DefinerProperty,
2352        "DISTKEY": DistKeyProperty,
2353        "DISTSTYLE": DistStyleProperty,
2354        "ENGINE": EngineProperty,
2355        "EXECUTE AS": ExecuteAsProperty,
2356        "FORMAT": FileFormatProperty,
2357        "LANGUAGE": LanguageProperty,
2358        "LOCATION": LocationProperty,
2359        "PARTITIONED_BY": PartitionedByProperty,
2360        "RETURNS": ReturnsProperty,
2361        "ROW_FORMAT": RowFormatProperty,
2362        "SORTKEY": SortKeyProperty,
2363    }
2364
2365    PROPERTY_TO_NAME = {v: k for k, v in NAME_TO_PROPERTY.items()}
2366
2367    # CREATE property locations
2368    # Form: schema specified
2369    #   create [POST_CREATE]
2370    #     table a [POST_NAME]
2371    #     (b int) [POST_SCHEMA]
2372    #     with ([POST_WITH])
2373    #     index (b) [POST_INDEX]
2374    #
2375    # Form: alias selection
2376    #   create [POST_CREATE]
2377    #     table a [POST_NAME]
2378    #     as [POST_ALIAS] (select * from b) [POST_EXPRESSION]
2379    #     index (c) [POST_INDEX]
2380    class Location(AutoName):
2381        POST_CREATE = auto()
2382        POST_NAME = auto()
2383        POST_SCHEMA = auto()
2384        POST_WITH = auto()
2385        POST_ALIAS = auto()
2386        POST_EXPRESSION = auto()
2387        POST_INDEX = auto()
2388        UNSUPPORTED = auto()
2389
2390    @classmethod
2391    def from_dict(cls, properties_dict: t.Dict) -> Properties:
2392        expressions = []
2393        for key, value in properties_dict.items():
2394            property_cls = cls.NAME_TO_PROPERTY.get(key.upper())
2395            if property_cls:
2396                expressions.append(property_cls(this=convert(value)))
2397            else:
2398                expressions.append(Property(this=Literal.string(key), value=convert(value)))
2399
2400        return cls(expressions=expressions)
2401
2402
2403class Qualify(Expression):
2404    pass
2405
2406
2407class InputOutputFormat(Expression):
2408    arg_types = {"input_format": False, "output_format": False}
2409
2410
2411# https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/ias?topic=procedures-return-statement-in-sql
2412class Return(Expression):
2413    pass
2414
2415
2416class Reference(Expression):
2417    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "options": False}
2418
2419
2420class Tuple(Expression):
2421    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
2422
2423    def isin(
2424        self,
2425        *expressions: t.Any,
2426        query: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
2427        unnest: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] | t.Collection[ExpOrStr] = None,
2428        copy: bool = True,
2429        **opts,
2430    ) -> In:
2431        return In(
2432            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
2433            expressions=[convert(e, copy=copy) for e in expressions],
2434            query=maybe_parse(query, copy=copy, **opts) if query else None,
2435            unnest=(
2436                Unnest(
2437                    expressions=[
2438                        maybe_parse(t.cast(ExpOrStr, e), copy=copy, **opts)
2439                        for e in ensure_list(unnest)
2440                    ]
2441                )
2442                if unnest
2443                else None
2444            ),
2445        )
2446
2447
2448class Subqueryable(Unionable):
2449    def subquery(self, alias: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None, copy: bool = True) -> Subquery:
2450        """
2451        Convert this expression to an aliased expression that can be used as a Subquery.
2452
2453        Example:
2454            >>> subquery = Select().select("x").from_("tbl").subquery()
2455            >>> Select().select("x").from_(subquery).sql()
2456            'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl)'
2457
2458        Args:
2459            alias (str | Identifier): an optional alias for the subquery
2460            copy (bool): if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2461
2462        Returns:
2463            Alias: the subquery
2464        """
2465        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
2466        if not isinstance(alias, Expression):
2467            alias = TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None
2468
2469        return Subquery(this=instance, alias=alias)
2470
2471    def limit(
2472        self, expression: ExpOrStr | int, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
2473    ) -> Select:
2474        raise NotImplementedError
2475
2476    @property
2477    def ctes(self):
2478        with_ = self.args.get("with")
2479        if not with_:
2480            return []
2481        return with_.expressions
2482
2483    @property
2484    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2485        raise NotImplementedError("Subqueryable objects must implement `selects`")
2486
2487    @property
2488    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
2489        raise NotImplementedError("Subqueryable objects must implement `named_selects`")
2490
2491    def select(
2492        self,
2493        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2494        append: bool = True,
2495        dialect: DialectType = None,
2496        copy: bool = True,
2497        **opts,
2498    ) -> Subqueryable:
2499        raise NotImplementedError("Subqueryable objects must implement `select`")
2500
2501    def with_(
2502        self,
2503        alias: ExpOrStr,
2504        as_: ExpOrStr,
2505        recursive: t.Optional[bool] = None,
2506        append: bool = True,
2507        dialect: DialectType = None,
2508        copy: bool = True,
2509        **opts,
2510    ) -> Subqueryable:
2511        """
2512        Append to or set the common table expressions.
2513
2514        Example:
2515            >>> Select().with_("tbl2", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").select("x").from_("tbl2").sql()
2516            'WITH tbl2 AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) SELECT x FROM tbl2'
2517
2518        Args:
2519            alias: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
2520                If an `Expression` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2521            as_: the SQL code string to parse as the table expression.
2522                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2523            recursive: set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to `False`.
2524            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2525                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2526            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2527            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2528            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2529
2530        Returns:
2531            The modified expression.
2532        """
2533        return _apply_cte_builder(
2534            self, alias, as_, recursive=recursive, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts
2535        )
2536
2537
2538QUERY_MODIFIERS = {
2539    "match": False,
2540    "laterals": False,
2541    "joins": False,
2542    "connect": False,
2543    "pivots": False,
2544    "where": False,
2545    "group": False,
2546    "having": False,
2547    "qualify": False,
2548    "windows": False,
2549    "distribute": False,
2550    "sort": False,
2551    "cluster": False,
2552    "order": False,
2553    "limit": False,
2554    "offset": False,
2555    "locks": False,
2556    "sample": False,
2557    "settings": False,
2558    "format": False,
2559}
2560
2561
2562# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/queries/hints-transact-sql-table?view=sql-server-ver16
2563class WithTableHint(Expression):
2564    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2565
2566
2567# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/index-hints.html
2568class IndexTableHint(Expression):
2569    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "target": False}
2570
2571
2572# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/constructs/at-before
2573class HistoricalData(Expression):
2574    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": True}
2575
2576
2577class Table(Expression):
2578    arg_types = {
2579        "this": False,
2580        "alias": False,
2581        "db": False,
2582        "catalog": False,
2583        "laterals": False,
2584        "joins": False,
2585        "pivots": False,
2586        "hints": False,
2587        "system_time": False,
2588        "version": False,
2589        "format": False,
2590        "pattern": False,
2591        "ordinality": False,
2592        "when": False,
2593    }
2594
2595    @property
2596    def name(self) -> str:
2597        if isinstance(self.this, Func):
2598            return ""
2599        return self.this.name
2600
2601    @property
2602    def db(self) -> str:
2603        return self.text("db")
2604
2605    @property
2606    def catalog(self) -> str:
2607        return self.text("catalog")
2608
2609    @property
2610    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2611        return []
2612
2613    @property
2614    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
2615        return []
2616
2617    @property
2618    def parts(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2619        """Return the parts of a table in order catalog, db, table."""
2620        parts: t.List[Expression] = []
2621
2622        for arg in ("catalog", "db", "this"):
2623            part = self.args.get(arg)
2624
2625            if isinstance(part, Dot):
2626                parts.extend(part.flatten())
2627            elif isinstance(part, Expression):
2628                parts.append(part)
2629
2630        return parts
2631
2632    def to_column(self, copy: bool = True) -> Alias | Column | Dot:
2633        parts = self.parts
2634        col = column(*reversed(parts[0:4]), fields=parts[4:], copy=copy)  # type: ignore
2635        alias = self.args.get("alias")
2636        if alias:
2637            col = alias_(col, alias.this, copy=copy)
2638        return col
2639
2640
2641class Union(Subqueryable):
2642    arg_types = {
2643        "with": False,
2644        "this": True,
2645        "expression": True,
2646        "distinct": False,
2647        "by_name": False,
2648        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
2649    }
2650
2651    def limit(
2652        self, expression: ExpOrStr | int, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
2653    ) -> Select:
2654        """
2655        Set the LIMIT expression.
2656
2657        Example:
2658            >>> select("1").union(select("1")).limit(1).sql()
2659            'SELECT * FROM (SELECT 1 UNION SELECT 1) AS _l_0 LIMIT 1'
2660
2661        Args:
2662            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
2663                This can also be an integer.
2664                If a `Limit` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2665                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
2666            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2667            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2668            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2669
2670        Returns:
2671            The limited subqueryable.
2672        """
2673        return (
2674            select("*")
2675            .from_(self.subquery(alias="_l_0", copy=copy))
2676            .limit(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
2677        )
2678
2679    def select(
2680        self,
2681        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2682        append: bool = True,
2683        dialect: DialectType = None,
2684        copy: bool = True,
2685        **opts,
2686    ) -> Union:
2687        """Append to or set the SELECT of the union recursively.
2688
2689        Example:
2690            >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
2691            >>> parse_one("select a from x union select a from y union select a from z").select("b").sql()
2692            'SELECT a, b FROM x UNION SELECT a, b FROM y UNION SELECT a, b FROM z'
2693
2694        Args:
2695            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2696                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2697            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2698                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2699            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2700            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2701            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2702
2703        Returns:
2704            Union: the modified expression.
2705        """
2706        this = self.copy() if copy else self
2707        this.this.unnest().select(*expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
2708        this.expression.unnest().select(
2709            *expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts
2710        )
2711        return this
2712
2713    @property
2714    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
2715        return self.this.unnest().named_selects
2716
2717    @property
2718    def is_star(self) -> bool:
2719        return self.this.is_star or self.expression.is_star
2720
2721    @property
2722    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2723        return self.this.unnest().selects
2724
2725    @property
2726    def left(self) -> Expression:
2727        return self.this
2728
2729    @property
2730    def right(self) -> Expression:
2731        return self.expression
2732
2733
2734class Except(Union):
2735    pass
2736
2737
2738class Intersect(Union):
2739    pass
2740
2741
2742class Unnest(UDTF):
2743    arg_types = {
2744        "expressions": True,
2745        "alias": False,
2746        "offset": False,
2747    }
2748
2749    @property
2750    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
2751        columns = super().selects
2752        offset = self.args.get("offset")
2753        if offset:
2754            columns = columns + [to_identifier("offset") if offset is True else offset]
2755        return columns
2756
2757
2758class Update(Expression):
2759    arg_types = {
2760        "with": False,
2761        "this": False,
2762        "expressions": True,
2763        "from": False,
2764        "where": False,
2765        "returning": False,
2766        "order": False,
2767        "limit": False,
2768    }
2769
2770
2771class Values(UDTF):
2772    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "alias": False}
2773
2774
2775class Var(Expression):
2776    pass
2777
2778
2779class Version(Expression):
2780    """
2781    Time travel, iceberg, bigquery etc
2782    https://trino.io/docs/current/connector/iceberg.html?highlight=snapshot#using-snapshots
2783    https://www.databricks.com/blog/2019/02/04/introducing-delta-time-travel-for-large-scale-data-lakes.html
2784    https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax#for_system_time_as_of
2785    https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/relational-databases/tables/querying-data-in-a-system-versioned-temporal-table?view=sql-server-ver16
2786    this is either TIMESTAMP or VERSION
2787    kind is ("AS OF", "BETWEEN")
2788    """
2789
2790    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": False}
2791
2792
2793class Schema(Expression):
2794    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": False}
2795
2796
2797# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/select.html
2798# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/SELECT.html
2799class Lock(Expression):
2800    arg_types = {"update": True, "expressions": False, "wait": False}
2801
2802
2803class Select(Subqueryable):
2804    arg_types = {
2805        "with": False,
2806        "kind": False,
2807        "expressions": False,
2808        "hint": False,
2809        "distinct": False,
2810        "into": False,
2811        "from": False,
2812        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
2813    }
2814
2815    def from_(
2816        self, expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
2817    ) -> Select:
2818        """
2819        Set the FROM expression.
2820
2821        Example:
2822            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sql()
2823            'SELECT x FROM tbl'
2824
2825        Args:
2826            expression : the SQL code strings to parse.
2827                If a `From` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2828                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `From`.
2829            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2830            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2831            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2832
2833        Returns:
2834            The modified Select expression.
2835        """
2836        return _apply_builder(
2837            expression=expression,
2838            instance=self,
2839            arg="from",
2840            into=From,
2841            prefix="FROM",
2842            dialect=dialect,
2843            copy=copy,
2844            **opts,
2845        )
2846
2847    def group_by(
2848        self,
2849        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2850        append: bool = True,
2851        dialect: DialectType = None,
2852        copy: bool = True,
2853        **opts,
2854    ) -> Select:
2855        """
2856        Set the GROUP BY expression.
2857
2858        Example:
2859            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x", "COUNT(1)").group_by("x").sql()
2860            'SELECT x, COUNT(1) FROM tbl GROUP BY x'
2861
2862        Args:
2863            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2864                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2865                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Group`.
2866                If nothing is passed in then a group by is not applied to the expression
2867            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2868                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Group` expression into a single expression.
2869            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2870            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2871            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2872
2873        Returns:
2874            The modified Select expression.
2875        """
2876        if not expressions:
2877            return self if not copy else self.copy()
2878
2879        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2880            *expressions,
2881            instance=self,
2882            arg="group",
2883            append=append,
2884            copy=copy,
2885            prefix="GROUP BY",
2886            into=Group,
2887            dialect=dialect,
2888            **opts,
2889        )
2890
2891    def order_by(
2892        self,
2893        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2894        append: bool = True,
2895        dialect: DialectType = None,
2896        copy: bool = True,
2897        **opts,
2898    ) -> Select:
2899        """
2900        Set the ORDER BY expression.
2901
2902        Example:
2903            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").order_by("x DESC").sql()
2904            'SELECT x FROM tbl ORDER BY x DESC'
2905
2906        Args:
2907            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2908                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2909                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Order`.
2910            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2911                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2912            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2913            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2914            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2915
2916        Returns:
2917            The modified Select expression.
2918        """
2919        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2920            *expressions,
2921            instance=self,
2922            arg="order",
2923            append=append,
2924            copy=copy,
2925            prefix="ORDER BY",
2926            into=Order,
2927            dialect=dialect,
2928            **opts,
2929        )
2930
2931    def sort_by(
2932        self,
2933        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2934        append: bool = True,
2935        dialect: DialectType = None,
2936        copy: bool = True,
2937        **opts,
2938    ) -> Select:
2939        """
2940        Set the SORT BY expression.
2941
2942        Example:
2943            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sort_by("x DESC").sql(dialect="hive")
2944            'SELECT x FROM tbl SORT BY x DESC'
2945
2946        Args:
2947            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2948                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2949                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `SORT`.
2950            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2951                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2952            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2953            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2954            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2955
2956        Returns:
2957            The modified Select expression.
2958        """
2959        return _apply_child_list_builder(
2960            *expressions,
2961            instance=self,
2962            arg="sort",
2963            append=append,
2964            copy=copy,
2965            prefix="SORT BY",
2966            into=Sort,
2967            dialect=dialect,
2968            **opts,
2969        )
2970
2971    def cluster_by(
2972        self,
2973        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2974        append: bool = True,
2975        dialect: DialectType = None,
2976        copy: bool = True,
2977        **opts,
2978    ) -> Select:
2979        """
2980        Set the CLUSTER BY expression.
2981
2982        Example:
2983            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").cluster_by("x DESC").sql(dialect="hive")
2984            'SELECT x FROM tbl CLUSTER BY x DESC'
2985
2986        Args:
2987            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2988                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2989                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Cluster`.
2990            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2991                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
2992            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2993            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2994            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2995
2996        Returns:
2997            The modified Select expression.
2998        """
2999        return _apply_child_list_builder(
3000            *expressions,
3001            instance=self,
3002            arg="cluster",
3003            append=append,
3004            copy=copy,
3005            prefix="CLUSTER BY",
3006            into=Cluster,
3007            dialect=dialect,
3008            **opts,
3009        )
3010
3011    def limit(
3012        self, expression: ExpOrStr | int, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
3013    ) -> Select:
3014        """
3015        Set the LIMIT expression.
3016
3017        Example:
3018            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").limit(10).sql()
3019            'SELECT x FROM tbl LIMIT 10'
3020
3021        Args:
3022            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
3023                This can also be an integer.
3024                If a `Limit` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
3025                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
3026            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
3027            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3028            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3029
3030        Returns:
3031            Select: the modified expression.
3032        """
3033        return _apply_builder(
3034            expression=expression,
3035            instance=self,
3036            arg="limit",
3037            into=Limit,
3038            prefix="LIMIT",
3039            dialect=dialect,
3040            copy=copy,
3041            into_arg="expression",
3042            **opts,
3043        )
3044
3045    def offset(
3046        self, expression: ExpOrStr | int, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
3047    ) -> Select:
3048        """
3049        Set the OFFSET expression.
3050
3051        Example:
3052            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").offset(10).sql()
3053            'SELECT x FROM tbl OFFSET 10'
3054
3055        Args:
3056            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
3057                This can also be an integer.
3058                If a `Offset` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
3059                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Offset`.
3060            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
3061            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3062            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3063
3064        Returns:
3065            The modified Select expression.
3066        """
3067        return _apply_builder(
3068            expression=expression,
3069            instance=self,
3070            arg="offset",
3071            into=Offset,
3072            prefix="OFFSET",
3073            dialect=dialect,
3074            copy=copy,
3075            into_arg="expression",
3076            **opts,
3077        )
3078
3079    def select(
3080        self,
3081        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3082        append: bool = True,
3083        dialect: DialectType = None,
3084        copy: bool = True,
3085        **opts,
3086    ) -> Select:
3087        """
3088        Append to or set the SELECT expressions.
3089
3090        Example:
3091            >>> Select().select("x", "y").sql()
3092            'SELECT x, y'
3093
3094        Args:
3095            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3096                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3097            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3098                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
3099            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3100            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3101            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3102
3103        Returns:
3104            The modified Select expression.
3105        """
3106        return _apply_list_builder(
3107            *expressions,
3108            instance=self,
3109            arg="expressions",
3110            append=append,
3111            dialect=dialect,
3112            copy=copy,
3113            **opts,
3114        )
3115
3116    def lateral(
3117        self,
3118        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3119        append: bool = True,
3120        dialect: DialectType = None,
3121        copy: bool = True,
3122        **opts,
3123    ) -> Select:
3124        """
3125        Append to or set the LATERAL expressions.
3126
3127        Example:
3128            >>> Select().select("x").lateral("OUTER explode(y) tbl2 AS z").from_("tbl").sql()
3129            'SELECT x FROM tbl LATERAL VIEW OUTER EXPLODE(y) tbl2 AS z'
3130
3131        Args:
3132            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3133                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3134            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3135                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
3136            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3137            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3138            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3139
3140        Returns:
3141            The modified Select expression.
3142        """
3143        return _apply_list_builder(
3144            *expressions,
3145            instance=self,
3146            arg="laterals",
3147            append=append,
3148            into=Lateral,
3149            prefix="LATERAL VIEW",
3150            dialect=dialect,
3151            copy=copy,
3152            **opts,
3153        )
3154
3155    def join(
3156        self,
3157        expression: ExpOrStr,
3158        on: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
3159        using: t.Optional[ExpOrStr | t.Collection[ExpOrStr]] = None,
3160        append: bool = True,
3161        join_type: t.Optional[str] = None,
3162        join_alias: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
3163        dialect: DialectType = None,
3164        copy: bool = True,
3165        **opts,
3166    ) -> Select:
3167        """
3168        Append to or set the JOIN expressions.
3169
3170        Example:
3171            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y").sql()
3172            'SELECT * FROM tbl JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
3173
3174            >>> Select().select("1").from_("a").join("b", using=["x", "y", "z"]).sql()
3175            'SELECT 1 FROM a JOIN b USING (x, y, z)'
3176
3177            Use `join_type` to change the type of join:
3178
3179            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y", join_type="left outer").sql()
3180            'SELECT * FROM tbl LEFT OUTER JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
3181
3182        Args:
3183            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
3184                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3185            on: optionally specify the join "on" criteria as a SQL string.
3186                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3187            using: optionally specify the join "using" criteria as a SQL string.
3188                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3189            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3190                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
3191            join_type: if set, alter the parsed join type.
3192            join_alias: an optional alias for the joined source.
3193            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3194            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3195            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3196
3197        Returns:
3198            Select: the modified expression.
3199        """
3200        parse_args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {"dialect": dialect, **opts}
3201
3202        try:
3203            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=Join, prefix="JOIN", **parse_args)
3204        except ParseError:
3205            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=(Join, Expression), **parse_args)
3206
3207        join = expression if isinstance(expression, Join) else Join(this=expression)
3208
3209        if isinstance(join.this, Select):
3210            join.this.replace(join.this.subquery())
3211
3212        if join_type:
3213            method: t.Optional[Token]
3214            side: t.Optional[Token]
3215            kind: t.Optional[Token]
3216
3217            method, side, kind = maybe_parse(join_type, into="JOIN_TYPE", **parse_args)  # type: ignore
3218
3219            if method:
3220                join.set("method", method.text)
3221            if side:
3222                join.set("side", side.text)
3223            if kind:
3224                join.set("kind", kind.text)
3225
3226        if on:
3227            on = and_(*ensure_list(on), dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
3228            join.set("on", on)
3229
3230        if using:
3231            join = _apply_list_builder(
3232                *ensure_list(using),
3233                instance=join,
3234                arg="using",
3235                append=append,
3236                copy=copy,
3237                into=Identifier,
3238                **opts,
3239            )
3240
3241        if join_alias:
3242            join.set("this", alias_(join.this, join_alias, table=True))
3243
3244        return _apply_list_builder(
3245            join,
3246            instance=self,
3247            arg="joins",
3248            append=append,
3249            copy=copy,
3250            **opts,
3251        )
3252
3253    def where(
3254        self,
3255        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3256        append: bool = True,
3257        dialect: DialectType = None,
3258        copy: bool = True,
3259        **opts,
3260    ) -> Select:
3261        """
3262        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
3263
3264        Example:
3265            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
3266            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
3267
3268        Args:
3269            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3270                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3271                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
3272            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
3273                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
3274            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3275            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3276            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3277
3278        Returns:
3279            Select: the modified expression.
3280        """
3281        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
3282            *expressions,
3283            instance=self,
3284            arg="where",
3285            append=append,
3286            into=Where,
3287            dialect=dialect,
3288            copy=copy,
3289            **opts,
3290        )
3291
3292    def having(
3293        self,
3294        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3295        append: bool = True,
3296        dialect: DialectType = None,
3297        copy: bool = True,
3298        **opts,
3299    ) -> Select:
3300        """
3301        Append to or set the HAVING expressions.
3302
3303        Example:
3304            >>> Select().select("x", "COUNT(y)").from_("tbl").group_by("x").having("COUNT(y) > 3").sql()
3305            'SELECT x, COUNT(y) FROM tbl GROUP BY x HAVING COUNT(y) > 3'
3306
3307        Args:
3308            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3309                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3310                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
3311            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
3312                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
3313            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3314            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3315            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3316
3317        Returns:
3318            The modified Select expression.
3319        """
3320        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
3321            *expressions,
3322            instance=self,
3323            arg="having",
3324            append=append,
3325            into=Having,
3326            dialect=dialect,
3327            copy=copy,
3328            **opts,
3329        )
3330
3331    def window(
3332        self,
3333        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3334        append: bool = True,
3335        dialect: DialectType = None,
3336        copy: bool = True,
3337        **opts,
3338    ) -> Select:
3339        return _apply_list_builder(
3340            *expressions,
3341            instance=self,
3342            arg="windows",
3343            append=append,
3344            into=Window,
3345            dialect=dialect,
3346            copy=copy,
3347            **opts,
3348        )
3349
3350    def qualify(
3351        self,
3352        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3353        append: bool = True,
3354        dialect: DialectType = None,
3355        copy: bool = True,
3356        **opts,
3357    ) -> Select:
3358        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
3359            *expressions,
3360            instance=self,
3361            arg="qualify",
3362            append=append,
3363            into=Qualify,
3364            dialect=dialect,
3365            copy=copy,
3366            **opts,
3367        )
3368
3369    def distinct(
3370        self, *ons: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], distinct: bool = True, copy: bool = True
3371    ) -> Select:
3372        """
3373        Set the OFFSET expression.
3374
3375        Example:
3376            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").distinct().sql()
3377            'SELECT DISTINCT x FROM tbl'
3378
3379        Args:
3380            ons: the expressions to distinct on
3381            distinct: whether the Select should be distinct
3382            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3383
3384        Returns:
3385            Select: the modified expression.
3386        """
3387        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3388        on = Tuple(expressions=[maybe_parse(on, copy=copy) for on in ons if on]) if ons else None
3389        instance.set("distinct", Distinct(on=on) if distinct else None)
3390        return instance
3391
3392    def ctas(
3393        self,
3394        table: ExpOrStr,
3395        properties: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3396        dialect: DialectType = None,
3397        copy: bool = True,
3398        **opts,
3399    ) -> Create:
3400        """
3401        Convert this expression to a CREATE TABLE AS statement.
3402
3403        Example:
3404            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").ctas("x").sql()
3405            'CREATE TABLE x AS SELECT * FROM tbl'
3406
3407        Args:
3408            table: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
3409                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3410            properties: an optional mapping of table properties
3411            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input table.
3412            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3413            opts: other options to use to parse the input table.
3414
3415        Returns:
3416            The new Create expression.
3417        """
3418        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3419        table_expression = maybe_parse(
3420            table,
3421            into=Table,
3422            dialect=dialect,
3423            **opts,
3424        )
3425        properties_expression = None
3426        if properties:
3427            properties_expression = Properties.from_dict(properties)
3428
3429        return Create(
3430            this=table_expression,
3431            kind="TABLE",
3432            expression=instance,
3433            properties=properties_expression,
3434        )
3435
3436    def lock(self, update: bool = True, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
3437        """
3438        Set the locking read mode for this expression.
3439
3440        Examples:
3441            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock().sql("mysql")
3442            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR UPDATE"
3443
3444            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock(update=False).sql("mysql")
3445            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR SHARE"
3446
3447        Args:
3448            update: if `True`, the locking type will be `FOR UPDATE`, else it will be `FOR SHARE`.
3449            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3450
3451        Returns:
3452            The modified expression.
3453        """
3454        inst = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3455        inst.set("locks", [Lock(update=update)])
3456
3457        return inst
3458
3459    def hint(self, *hints: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
3460        """
3461        Set hints for this expression.
3462
3463        Examples:
3464            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").hint("BROADCAST(y)").sql(dialect="spark")
3465            'SELECT /*+ BROADCAST(y) */ x FROM tbl'
3466
3467        Args:
3468            hints: The SQL code strings to parse as the hints.
3469                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3470            dialect: The dialect used to parse the hints.
3471            copy: If `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3472
3473        Returns:
3474            The modified expression.
3475        """
3476        inst = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3477        inst.set(
3478            "hint", Hint(expressions=[maybe_parse(h, copy=copy, dialect=dialect) for h in hints])
3479        )
3480
3481        return inst
3482
3483    @property
3484    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
3485        return [e.output_name for e in self.expressions if e.alias_or_name]
3486
3487    @property
3488    def is_star(self) -> bool:
3489        return any(expression.is_star for expression in self.expressions)
3490
3491    @property
3492    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
3493        return self.expressions
3494
3495
3496class Subquery(DerivedTable, Unionable):
3497    arg_types = {
3498        "this": True,
3499        "alias": False,
3500        "with": False,
3501        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
3502    }
3503
3504    def unnest(self):
3505        """
3506        Returns the first non subquery.
3507        """
3508        expression = self
3509        while isinstance(expression, Subquery):
3510            expression = expression.this
3511        return expression
3512
3513    def unwrap(self) -> Subquery:
3514        expression = self
3515        while expression.same_parent and expression.is_wrapper:
3516            expression = t.cast(Subquery, expression.parent)
3517        return expression
3518
3519    @property
3520    def is_wrapper(self) -> bool:
3521        """
3522        Whether this Subquery acts as a simple wrapper around another expression.
3523
3524        SELECT * FROM (((SELECT * FROM t)))
3525                      ^
3526                      This corresponds to a "wrapper" Subquery node
3527        """
3528        return all(v is None for k, v in self.args.items() if k != "this")
3529
3530    @property
3531    def is_star(self) -> bool:
3532        return self.this.is_star
3533
3534    @property
3535    def output_name(self) -> str:
3536        return self.alias
3537
3538
3539class TableSample(Expression):
3540    arg_types = {
3541        "this": False,
3542        "expressions": False,
3543        "method": False,
3544        "bucket_numerator": False,
3545        "bucket_denominator": False,
3546        "bucket_field": False,
3547        "percent": False,
3548        "rows": False,
3549        "size": False,
3550        "seed": False,
3551    }
3552
3553
3554class Tag(Expression):
3555    """Tags are used for generating arbitrary sql like SELECT <span>x</span>."""
3556
3557    arg_types = {
3558        "this": False,
3559        "prefix": False,
3560        "postfix": False,
3561    }
3562
3563
3564# Represents both the standard SQL PIVOT operator and DuckDB's "simplified" PIVOT syntax
3565# https://duckdb.org/docs/sql/statements/pivot
3566class Pivot(Expression):
3567    arg_types = {
3568        "this": False,
3569        "alias": False,
3570        "expressions": False,
3571        "field": False,
3572        "unpivot": False,
3573        "using": False,
3574        "group": False,
3575        "columns": False,
3576        "include_nulls": False,
3577    }
3578
3579    @property
3580    def unpivot(self) -> bool:
3581        return bool(self.args.get("unpivot"))
3582
3583
3584class Window(Condition):
3585    arg_types = {
3586        "this": True,
3587        "partition_by": False,
3588        "order": False,
3589        "spec": False,
3590        "alias": False,
3591        "over": False,
3592        "first": False,
3593    }
3594
3595
3596class WindowSpec(Expression):
3597    arg_types = {
3598        "kind": False,
3599        "start": False,
3600        "start_side": False,
3601        "end": False,
3602        "end_side": False,
3603    }
3604
3605
3606class Where(Expression):
3607    pass
3608
3609
3610class Star(Expression):
3611    arg_types = {"except": False, "replace": False}
3612
3613    @property
3614    def name(self) -> str:
3615        return "*"
3616
3617    @property
3618    def output_name(self) -> str:
3619        return self.name
3620
3621
3622class Parameter(Condition):
3623    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3624
3625
3626class SessionParameter(Condition):
3627    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
3628
3629
3630class Placeholder(Condition):
3631    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": False}
3632
3633
3634class Null(Condition):
3635    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
3636
3637    @property
3638    def name(self) -> str:
3639        return "NULL"
3640
3641
3642class Boolean(Condition):
3643    pass
3644
3645
3646class DataTypeParam(Expression):
3647    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3648
3649
3650class DataType(Expression):
3651    arg_types = {
3652        "this": True,
3653        "expressions": False,
3654        "nested": False,
3655        "values": False,
3656        "prefix": False,
3657        "kind": False,
3658    }
3659
3660    class Type(AutoName):
3661        ARRAY = auto()
3662        AGGREGATEFUNCTION = auto()
3663        SIMPLEAGGREGATEFUNCTION = auto()
3664        BIGDECIMAL = auto()
3665        BIGINT = auto()
3666        BIGSERIAL = auto()
3667        BINARY = auto()
3668        BIT = auto()
3669        BOOLEAN = auto()
3670        BPCHAR = auto()
3671        CHAR = auto()
3672        DATE = auto()
3673        DATE32 = auto()
3674        DATEMULTIRANGE = auto()
3675        DATERANGE = auto()
3676        DATETIME = auto()
3677        DATETIME64 = auto()
3678        DECIMAL = auto()
3679        DOUBLE = auto()
3680        ENUM = auto()
3681        ENUM8 = auto()
3682        ENUM16 = auto()
3683        FIXEDSTRING = auto()
3684        FLOAT = auto()
3685        GEOGRAPHY = auto()
3686        GEOMETRY = auto()
3687        HLLSKETCH = auto()
3688        HSTORE = auto()
3689        IMAGE = auto()
3690        INET = auto()
3691        INT = auto()
3692        INT128 = auto()
3693        INT256 = auto()
3694        INT4MULTIRANGE = auto()
3695        INT4RANGE = auto()
3696        INT8MULTIRANGE = auto()
3697        INT8RANGE = auto()
3698        INTERVAL = auto()
3699        IPADDRESS = auto()
3700        IPPREFIX = auto()
3701        IPV4 = auto()
3702        IPV6 = auto()
3703        JSON = auto()
3704        JSONB = auto()
3705        LONGBLOB = auto()
3706        LONGTEXT = auto()
3707        LOWCARDINALITY = auto()
3708        MAP = auto()
3709        MEDIUMBLOB = auto()
3710        MEDIUMINT = auto()
3711        MEDIUMTEXT = auto()
3712        MONEY = auto()
3713        NCHAR = auto()
3714        NESTED = auto()
3715        NULL = auto()
3716        NULLABLE = auto()
3717        NUMMULTIRANGE = auto()
3718        NUMRANGE = auto()
3719        NVARCHAR = auto()
3720        OBJECT = auto()
3721        ROWVERSION = auto()
3722        SERIAL = auto()
3723        SET = auto()
3724        SMALLINT = auto()
3725        SMALLMONEY = auto()
3726        SMALLSERIAL = auto()
3727        STRUCT = auto()
3728        SUPER = auto()
3729        TEXT = auto()
3730        TINYBLOB = auto()
3731        TINYTEXT = auto()
3732        TIME = auto()
3733        TIMETZ = auto()
3734        TIMESTAMP = auto()
3735        TIMESTAMPLTZ = auto()
3736        TIMESTAMPTZ = auto()
3737        TIMESTAMP_S = auto()
3738        TIMESTAMP_MS = auto()
3739        TIMESTAMP_NS = auto()
3740        TINYINT = auto()
3741        TSMULTIRANGE = auto()
3742        TSRANGE = auto()
3743        TSTZMULTIRANGE = auto()
3744        TSTZRANGE = auto()
3745        UBIGINT = auto()
3746        UINT = auto()
3747        UINT128 = auto()
3748        UINT256 = auto()
3749        UMEDIUMINT = auto()
3750        UDECIMAL = auto()
3751        UNIQUEIDENTIFIER = auto()
3752        UNKNOWN = auto()  # Sentinel value, useful for type annotation
3753        USERDEFINED = "USER-DEFINED"
3754        USMALLINT = auto()
3755        UTINYINT = auto()
3756        UUID = auto()
3757        VARBINARY = auto()
3758        VARCHAR = auto()
3759        VARIANT = auto()
3760        XML = auto()
3761        YEAR = auto()
3762
3763    TEXT_TYPES = {
3764        Type.CHAR,
3765        Type.NCHAR,
3766        Type.VARCHAR,
3767        Type.NVARCHAR,
3768        Type.TEXT,
3769    }
3770
3771    INTEGER_TYPES = {
3772        Type.INT,
3773        Type.TINYINT,
3774        Type.SMALLINT,
3775        Type.BIGINT,
3776        Type.INT128,
3777        Type.INT256,
3778        Type.BIT,
3779    }
3780
3781    FLOAT_TYPES = {
3782        Type.FLOAT,
3783        Type.DOUBLE,
3784    }
3785
3786    NUMERIC_TYPES = {
3787        *INTEGER_TYPES,
3788        *FLOAT_TYPES,
3789    }
3790
3791    TEMPORAL_TYPES = {
3792        Type.TIME,
3793        Type.TIMETZ,
3794        Type.TIMESTAMP,
3795        Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
3796        Type.TIMESTAMPLTZ,
3797        Type.TIMESTAMP_S,
3798        Type.TIMESTAMP_MS,
3799        Type.TIMESTAMP_NS,
3800        Type.DATE,
3801        Type.DATE32,
3802        Type.DATETIME,
3803        Type.DATETIME64,
3804    }
3805
3806    @classmethod
3807    def build(
3808        cls,
3809        dtype: DATA_TYPE,
3810        dialect: DialectType = None,
3811        udt: bool = False,
3812        copy: bool = True,
3813        **kwargs,
3814    ) -> DataType:
3815        """
3816        Constructs a DataType object.
3817
3818        Args:
3819            dtype: the data type of interest.
3820            dialect: the dialect to use for parsing `dtype`, in case it's a string.
3821            udt: when set to True, `dtype` will be used as-is if it can't be parsed into a
3822                DataType, thus creating a user-defined type.
3823            copy: whether or not to copy the data type.
3824            kwargs: additional arguments to pass in the constructor of DataType.
3825
3826        Returns:
3827            The constructed DataType object.
3828        """
3829        from sqlglot import parse_one
3830
3831        if isinstance(dtype, str):
3832            if dtype.upper() == "UNKNOWN":
3833                return DataType(this=DataType.Type.UNKNOWN, **kwargs)
3834
3835            try:
3836                data_type_exp = parse_one(
3837                    dtype, read=dialect, into=DataType, error_level=ErrorLevel.IGNORE
3838                )
3839            except ParseError:
3840                if udt:
3841                    return DataType(this=DataType.Type.USERDEFINED, kind=dtype, **kwargs)
3842                raise
3843        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType.Type):
3844            data_type_exp = DataType(this=dtype)
3845        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType):
3846            return maybe_copy(dtype, copy)
3847        else:
3848            raise ValueError(f"Invalid data type: {type(dtype)}. Expected str or DataType.Type")
3849
3850        return DataType(**{**data_type_exp.args, **kwargs})
3851
3852    def is_type(self, *dtypes: DATA_TYPE) -> bool:
3853        """
3854        Checks whether this DataType matches one of the provided data types. Nested types or precision
3855        will be compared using "structural equivalence" semantics, so e.g. array<int> != array<float>.
3856
3857        Args:
3858            dtypes: the data types to compare this DataType to.
3859
3860        Returns:
3861            True, if and only if there is a type in `dtypes` which is equal to this DataType.
3862        """
3863        for dtype in dtypes:
3864            other = DataType.build(dtype, copy=False, udt=True)
3865
3866            if (
3867                other.expressions
3868                or self.this == DataType.Type.USERDEFINED
3869                or other.this == DataType.Type.USERDEFINED
3870            ):
3871                matches = self == other
3872            else:
3873                matches = self.this == other.this
3874
3875            if matches:
3876                return True
3877        return False
3878
3879
3880DATA_TYPE = t.Union[str, DataType, DataType.Type]
3881
3882
3883# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/datatype-pseudo.html
3884class PseudoType(DataType):
3885    arg_types = {"this": True}
3886
3887
3888# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/datatype-oid.html
3889class ObjectIdentifier(DataType):
3890    arg_types = {"this": True}
3891
3892
3893# WHERE x <OP> EXISTS|ALL|ANY|SOME(SELECT ...)
3894class SubqueryPredicate(Predicate):
3895    pass
3896
3897
3898class All(SubqueryPredicate):
3899    pass
3900
3901
3902class Any(SubqueryPredicate):
3903    pass
3904
3905
3906class Exists(SubqueryPredicate):
3907    pass
3908
3909
3910# Commands to interact with the databases or engines. For most of the command
3911# expressions we parse whatever comes after the command's name as a string.
3912class Command(Expression):
3913    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3914
3915
3916class Transaction(Expression):
3917    arg_types = {"this": False, "modes": False, "mark": False}
3918
3919
3920class Commit(Expression):
3921    arg_types = {"chain": False, "this": False, "durability": False}
3922
3923
3924class Rollback(Expression):
3925    arg_types = {"savepoint": False, "this": False}
3926
3927
3928class AlterTable(Expression):
3929    arg_types = {"this": True, "actions": True, "exists": False, "only": False}
3930
3931
3932class AddConstraint(Expression):
3933    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False, "enforced": False}
3934
3935
3936class DropPartition(Expression):
3937    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "exists": False}
3938
3939
3940# Binary expressions like (ADD a b)
3941class Binary(Condition):
3942    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
3943
3944    @property
3945    def left(self) -> Expression:
3946        return self.this
3947
3948    @property
3949    def right(self) -> Expression:
3950        return self.expression
3951
3952
3953class Add(Binary):
3954    pass
3955
3956
3957class Connector(Binary):
3958    pass
3959
3960
3961class And(Connector):
3962    pass
3963
3964
3965class Or(Connector):
3966    pass
3967
3968
3969class BitwiseAnd(Binary):
3970    pass
3971
3972
3973class BitwiseLeftShift(Binary):
3974    pass
3975
3976
3977class BitwiseOr(Binary):
3978    pass
3979
3980
3981class BitwiseRightShift(Binary):
3982    pass
3983
3984
3985class BitwiseXor(Binary):
3986    pass
3987
3988
3989class Div(Binary):
3990    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "typed": False, "safe": False}
3991
3992
3993class Overlaps(Binary):
3994    pass
3995
3996
3997class Dot(Binary):
3998    @property
3999    def name(self) -> str:
4000        return self.expression.name
4001
4002    @property
4003    def output_name(self) -> str:
4004        return self.name
4005
4006    @classmethod
4007    def build(self, expressions: t.Sequence[Expression]) -> Dot:
4008        """Build a Dot object with a sequence of expressions."""
4009        if len(expressions) < 2:
4010            raise ValueError("Dot requires >= 2 expressions.")
4011
4012        return t.cast(Dot, reduce(lambda x, y: Dot(this=x, expression=y), expressions))
4013
4014    @property
4015    def parts(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
4016        """Return the parts of a table / column in order catalog, db, table."""
4017        this, *parts = self.flatten()
4018
4019        parts.reverse()
4020
4021        for arg in ("this", "table", "db", "catalog"):
4022            part = this.args.get(arg)
4023
4024            if isinstance(part, Expression):
4025                parts.append(part)
4026
4027        parts.reverse()
4028        return parts
4029
4030
4031class DPipe(Binary):
4032    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "safe": False}
4033
4034
4035class EQ(Binary, Predicate):
4036    pass
4037
4038
4039class NullSafeEQ(Binary, Predicate):
4040    pass
4041
4042
4043class NullSafeNEQ(Binary, Predicate):
4044    pass
4045
4046
4047# Represents e.g. := in DuckDB which is mostly used for setting parameters
4048class PropertyEQ(Binary):
4049    pass
4050
4051
4052class Distance(Binary):
4053    pass
4054
4055
4056class Escape(Binary):
4057    pass
4058
4059
4060class Glob(Binary, Predicate):
4061    pass
4062
4063
4064class GT(Binary, Predicate):
4065    pass
4066
4067
4068class GTE(Binary, Predicate):
4069    pass
4070
4071
4072class ILike(Binary, Predicate):
4073    pass
4074
4075
4076class ILikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
4077    pass
4078
4079
4080class IntDiv(Binary):
4081    pass
4082
4083
4084class Is(Binary, Predicate):
4085    pass
4086
4087
4088class Kwarg(Binary):
4089    """Kwarg in special functions like func(kwarg => y)."""
4090
4091
4092class Like(Binary, Predicate):
4093    pass
4094
4095
4096class LikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
4097    pass
4098
4099
4100class LT(Binary, Predicate):
4101    pass
4102
4103
4104class LTE(Binary, Predicate):
4105    pass
4106
4107
4108class Mod(Binary):
4109    pass
4110
4111
4112class Mul(Binary):
4113    pass
4114
4115
4116class NEQ(Binary, Predicate):
4117    pass
4118
4119
4120# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/ddl-schemas.html#DDL-SCHEMAS-PATH
4121class Operator(Binary):
4122    arg_types = {"this": True, "operator": True, "expression": True}
4123
4124
4125class SimilarTo(Binary, Predicate):
4126    pass
4127
4128
4129class Slice(Binary):
4130    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False}
4131
4132
4133class Sub(Binary):
4134    pass
4135
4136
4137# Unary Expressions
4138# (NOT a)
4139class Unary(Condition):
4140    pass
4141
4142
4143class BitwiseNot(Unary):
4144    pass
4145
4146
4147class Not(Unary):
4148    pass
4149
4150
4151class Paren(Unary):
4152    arg_types = {"this": True, "with": False}
4153
4154    @property
4155    def output_name(self) -> str:
4156        return self.this.name
4157
4158
4159class Neg(Unary):
4160    pass
4161
4162
4163class Alias(Expression):
4164    arg_types = {"this": True, "alias": False}
4165
4166    @property
4167    def output_name(self) -> str:
4168        return self.alias
4169
4170
4171# BigQuery requires the UNPIVOT column list aliases to be either strings or ints, but
4172# other dialects require identifiers. This enables us to transpile between them easily.
4173class PivotAlias(Alias):
4174    pass
4175
4176
4177class Aliases(Expression):
4178    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
4179
4180    @property
4181    def aliases(self):
4182        return self.expressions
4183
4184
4185# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/query-super.html
4186class AtIndex(Expression):
4187    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4188
4189
4190class AtTimeZone(Expression):
4191    arg_types = {"this": True, "zone": True}
4192
4193
4194class FromTimeZone(Expression):
4195    arg_types = {"this": True, "zone": True}
4196
4197
4198class Between(Predicate):
4199    arg_types = {"this": True, "low": True, "high": True}
4200
4201
4202class Bracket(Condition):
4203    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/operators#array_subscript_operator
4204    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "offset": False, "safe": False}
4205
4206    @property
4207    def output_name(self) -> str:
4208        if len(self.expressions) == 1:
4209            return self.expressions[0].output_name
4210
4211        return super().output_name
4212
4213
4214class Distinct(Expression):
4215    arg_types = {"expressions": False, "on": False}
4216
4217
4218class In(Predicate):
4219    arg_types = {
4220        "this": True,
4221        "expressions": False,
4222        "query": False,
4223        "unnest": False,
4224        "field": False,
4225        "is_global": False,
4226    }
4227
4228
4229# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/procedural-language#for-in
4230class ForIn(Expression):
4231    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4232
4233
4234class TimeUnit(Expression):
4235    """Automatically converts unit arg into a var."""
4236
4237    arg_types = {"unit": False}
4238
4239    UNABBREVIATED_UNIT_NAME = {
4240        "D": "DAY",
4241        "H": "HOUR",
4242        "M": "MINUTE",
4243        "MS": "MILLISECOND",
4244        "NS": "NANOSECOND",
4245        "Q": "QUARTER",
4246        "S": "SECOND",
4247        "US": "MICROSECOND",
4248        "W": "WEEK",
4249        "Y": "YEAR",
4250    }
4251
4252    VAR_LIKE = (Column, Literal, Var)
4253
4254    def __init__(self, **args):
4255        unit = args.get("unit")
4256        if isinstance(unit, self.VAR_LIKE):
4257            args["unit"] = Var(
4258                this=(self.UNABBREVIATED_UNIT_NAME.get(unit.name) or unit.name).upper()
4259            )
4260        elif isinstance(unit, Week):
4261            unit.set("this", Var(this=unit.this.name.upper()))
4262
4263        super().__init__(**args)
4264
4265    @property
4266    def unit(self) -> t.Optional[Var]:
4267        return self.args.get("unit")
4268
4269
4270class IntervalOp(TimeUnit):
4271    arg_types = {"unit": True, "expression": True}
4272
4273    def interval(self):
4274        return Interval(
4275            this=self.expression.copy(),
4276            unit=self.unit.copy(),
4277        )
4278
4279
4280# https://www.oracletutorial.com/oracle-basics/oracle-interval/
4281# https://trino.io/docs/current/language/types.html#interval-day-to-second
4282# https://docs.databricks.com/en/sql/language-manual/data-types/interval-type.html
4283class IntervalSpan(DataType):
4284    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4285
4286
4287class Interval(TimeUnit):
4288    arg_types = {"this": False, "unit": False}
4289
4290
4291class IgnoreNulls(Expression):
4292    pass
4293
4294
4295class RespectNulls(Expression):
4296    pass
4297
4298
4299# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/aggregate-function-calls#max_min_clause
4300class HavingMax(Expression):
4301    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "max": True}
4302
4303
4304# Functions
4305class Func(Condition):
4306    """
4307    The base class for all function expressions.
4308
4309    Attributes:
4310        is_var_len_args (bool): if set to True the last argument defined in arg_types will be
4311            treated as a variable length argument and the argument's value will be stored as a list.
4312        _sql_names (list): determines the SQL name (1st item in the list) and aliases (subsequent items)
4313            for this function expression. These values are used to map this node to a name during parsing
4314            as well as to provide the function's name during SQL string generation. By default the SQL
4315            name is set to the expression's class name transformed to snake case.
4316    """
4317
4318    is_var_len_args = False
4319
4320    @classmethod
4321    def from_arg_list(cls, args):
4322        if cls.is_var_len_args:
4323            all_arg_keys = list(cls.arg_types)
4324            # If this function supports variable length argument treat the last argument as such.
4325            non_var_len_arg_keys = all_arg_keys[:-1] if cls.is_var_len_args else all_arg_keys
4326            num_non_var = len(non_var_len_arg_keys)
4327
4328            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, non_var_len_arg_keys)}
4329            args_dict[all_arg_keys[-1]] = args[num_non_var:]
4330        else:
4331            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, cls.arg_types)}
4332
4333        return cls(**args_dict)
4334
4335    @classmethod
4336    def sql_names(cls):
4337        if cls is Func:
4338            raise NotImplementedError(
4339                "SQL name is only supported by concrete function implementations"
4340            )
4341        if "_sql_names" not in cls.__dict__:
4342            cls._sql_names = [camel_to_snake_case(cls.__name__)]
4343        return cls._sql_names
4344
4345    @classmethod
4346    def sql_name(cls):
4347        return cls.sql_names()[0]
4348
4349    @classmethod
4350    def default_parser_mappings(cls):
4351        return {name: cls.from_arg_list for name in cls.sql_names()}
4352
4353
4354class AggFunc(Func):
4355    pass
4356
4357
4358class ParameterizedAgg(AggFunc):
4359    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "params": True}
4360
4361
4362class Abs(Func):
4363    pass
4364
4365
4366class ArgMax(AggFunc):
4367    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "count": False}
4368    _sql_names = ["ARG_MAX", "ARGMAX", "MAX_BY"]
4369
4370
4371class ArgMin(AggFunc):
4372    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "count": False}
4373    _sql_names = ["ARG_MIN", "ARGMIN", "MIN_BY"]
4374
4375
4376class ApproxTopK(AggFunc):
4377    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False, "counters": False}
4378
4379
4380class Flatten(Func):
4381    pass
4382
4383
4384# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/sql/index.html#transform
4385class Transform(Func):
4386    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4387
4388
4389class Anonymous(Func):
4390    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4391    is_var_len_args = True
4392
4393
4394class AnonymousAggFunc(AggFunc):
4395    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4396    is_var_len_args = True
4397
4398
4399# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/combinators
4400class CombinedAggFunc(AnonymousAggFunc):
4401    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "parts": True}
4402
4403
4404class CombinedParameterizedAgg(ParameterizedAgg):
4405    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "params": True, "parts": True}
4406
4407
4408# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/hll
4409# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/r_HLL_function.html
4410class Hll(AggFunc):
4411    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4412    is_var_len_args = True
4413
4414
4415class ApproxDistinct(AggFunc):
4416    arg_types = {"this": True, "accuracy": False}
4417    _sql_names = ["APPROX_DISTINCT", "APPROX_COUNT_DISTINCT"]
4418
4419
4420class Array(Func):
4421    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
4422    is_var_len_args = True
4423
4424
4425# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/to_array
4426class ToArray(Func):
4427    pass
4428
4429
4430# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/to_char
4431# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/23/sqlrf/TO_CHAR-number.html
4432class ToChar(Func):
4433    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False, "nlsparam": False}
4434
4435
4436class GenerateSeries(Func):
4437    arg_types = {"start": True, "end": True, "step": False}
4438
4439
4440class ArrayAgg(AggFunc):
4441    pass
4442
4443
4444class ArrayUniqueAgg(AggFunc):
4445    pass
4446
4447
4448class ArrayAll(Func):
4449    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4450
4451
4452class ArrayAny(Func):
4453    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4454
4455
4456class ArrayConcat(Func):
4457    _sql_names = ["ARRAY_CONCAT", "ARRAY_CAT"]
4458    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4459    is_var_len_args = True
4460
4461
4462class ArrayContains(Binary, Func):
4463    pass
4464
4465
4466class ArrayContained(Binary):
4467    pass
4468
4469
4470class ArrayFilter(Func):
4471    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4472    _sql_names = ["FILTER", "ARRAY_FILTER"]
4473
4474
4475class ArrayJoin(Func):
4476    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "null": False}
4477
4478
4479class ArrayOverlaps(Binary, Func):
4480    pass
4481
4482
4483class ArraySize(Func):
4484    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4485
4486
4487class ArraySort(Func):
4488    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4489
4490
4491class ArraySum(Func):
4492    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4493
4494
4495class ArrayUnionAgg(AggFunc):
4496    pass
4497
4498
4499class Avg(AggFunc):
4500    pass
4501
4502
4503class AnyValue(AggFunc):
4504    pass
4505
4506
4507class Lag(AggFunc):
4508    arg_types = {"this": True, "offset": False, "default": False}
4509
4510
4511class Lead(AggFunc):
4512    arg_types = {"this": True, "offset": False, "default": False}
4513
4514
4515# some dialects have a distinction between first and first_value, usually first is an aggregate func
4516# and first_value is a window func
4517class First(AggFunc):
4518    pass
4519
4520
4521class Last(AggFunc):
4522    pass
4523
4524
4525class FirstValue(AggFunc):
4526    pass
4527
4528
4529class LastValue(AggFunc):
4530    pass
4531
4532
4533class NthValue(AggFunc):
4534    arg_types = {"this": True, "offset": True}
4535
4536
4537class Case(Func):
4538    arg_types = {"this": False, "ifs": True, "default": False}
4539
4540    def when(self, condition: ExpOrStr, then: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Case:
4541        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
4542        instance.append(
4543            "ifs",
4544            If(
4545                this=maybe_parse(condition, copy=copy, **opts),
4546                true=maybe_parse(then, copy=copy, **opts),
4547            ),
4548        )
4549        return instance
4550
4551    def else_(self, condition: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Case:
4552        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
4553        instance.set("default", maybe_parse(condition, copy=copy, **opts))
4554        return instance
4555
4556
4557class Cast(Func):
4558    arg_types = {"this": True, "to": True, "format": False, "safe": False}
4559
4560    @property
4561    def name(self) -> str:
4562        return self.this.name
4563
4564    @property
4565    def to(self) -> DataType:
4566        return self.args["to"]
4567
4568    @property
4569    def output_name(self) -> str:
4570        return self.name
4571
4572    def is_type(self, *dtypes: DATA_TYPE) -> bool:
4573        """
4574        Checks whether this Cast's DataType matches one of the provided data types. Nested types
4575        like arrays or structs will be compared using "structural equivalence" semantics, so e.g.
4576        array<int> != array<float>.
4577
4578        Args:
4579            dtypes: the data types to compare this Cast's DataType to.
4580
4581        Returns:
4582            True, if and only if there is a type in `dtypes` which is equal to this Cast's DataType.
4583        """
4584        return self.to.is_type(*dtypes)
4585
4586
4587class TryCast(Cast):
4588    pass
4589
4590
4591class CastToStrType(Func):
4592    arg_types = {"this": True, "to": True}
4593
4594
4595class Collate(Binary, Func):
4596    pass
4597
4598
4599class Ceil(Func):
4600    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
4601    _sql_names = ["CEIL", "CEILING"]
4602
4603
4604class Coalesce(Func):
4605    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4606    is_var_len_args = True
4607    _sql_names = ["COALESCE", "IFNULL", "NVL"]
4608
4609
4610class Chr(Func):
4611    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": False, "expressions": False}
4612    is_var_len_args = True
4613    _sql_names = ["CHR", "CHAR"]
4614
4615
4616class Concat(Func):
4617    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "safe": False, "coalesce": False}
4618    is_var_len_args = True
4619
4620
4621class ConcatWs(Concat):
4622    _sql_names = ["CONCAT_WS"]
4623
4624
4625class Count(AggFunc):
4626    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": False}
4627    is_var_len_args = True
4628
4629
4630class CountIf(AggFunc):
4631    _sql_names = ["COUNT_IF", "COUNTIF"]
4632
4633
4634# cube root
4635class Cbrt(Func):
4636    pass
4637
4638
4639class CurrentDate(Func):
4640    arg_types = {"this": False}
4641
4642
4643class CurrentDatetime(Func):
4644    arg_types = {"this": False}
4645
4646
4647class CurrentTime(Func):
4648    arg_types = {"this": False}
4649
4650
4651class CurrentTimestamp(Func):
4652    arg_types = {"this": False, "transaction": False}
4653
4654
4655class CurrentUser(Func):
4656    arg_types = {"this": False}
4657
4658
4659class DateAdd(Func, IntervalOp):
4660    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4661
4662
4663class DateSub(Func, IntervalOp):
4664    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4665
4666
4667class DateDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
4668    _sql_names = ["DATEDIFF", "DATE_DIFF"]
4669    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4670
4671
4672class DateTrunc(Func):
4673    arg_types = {"unit": True, "this": True, "zone": False}
4674
4675    def __init__(self, **args):
4676        unit = args.get("unit")
4677        if isinstance(unit, TimeUnit.VAR_LIKE):
4678            args["unit"] = Literal.string(
4679                (TimeUnit.UNABBREVIATED_UNIT_NAME.get(unit.name) or unit.name).upper()
4680            )
4681        elif isinstance(unit, Week):
4682            unit.set("this", Literal.string(unit.this.name.upper()))
4683
4684        super().__init__(**args)
4685
4686    @property
4687    def unit(self) -> Expression:
4688        return self.args["unit"]
4689
4690
4691class DatetimeAdd(Func, IntervalOp):
4692    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4693
4694
4695class DatetimeSub(Func, IntervalOp):
4696    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4697
4698
4699class DatetimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
4700    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4701
4702
4703class DatetimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
4704    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
4705
4706
4707class DayOfWeek(Func):
4708    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_WEEK", "DAYOFWEEK"]
4709
4710
4711class DayOfMonth(Func):
4712    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_MONTH", "DAYOFMONTH"]
4713
4714
4715class DayOfYear(Func):
4716    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_YEAR", "DAYOFYEAR"]
4717
4718
4719class ToDays(Func):
4720    pass
4721
4722
4723class WeekOfYear(Func):
4724    _sql_names = ["WEEK_OF_YEAR", "WEEKOFYEAR"]
4725
4726
4727class MonthsBetween(Func):
4728    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "roundoff": False}
4729
4730
4731class LastDay(Func, TimeUnit):
4732    _sql_names = ["LAST_DAY", "LAST_DAY_OF_MONTH"]
4733    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": False}
4734
4735
4736class Extract(Func):
4737    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4738
4739
4740class Timestamp(Func):
4741    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False, "with_tz": False}
4742
4743
4744class TimestampAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
4745    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4746
4747
4748class TimestampSub(Func, TimeUnit):
4749    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4750
4751
4752class TimestampDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
4753    _sql_names = ["TIMESTAMPDIFF", "TIMESTAMP_DIFF"]
4754    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4755
4756
4757class TimestampTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
4758    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
4759
4760
4761class TimeAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
4762    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4763
4764
4765class TimeSub(Func, TimeUnit):
4766    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4767
4768
4769class TimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
4770    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
4771
4772
4773class TimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
4774    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
4775
4776
4777class DateFromParts(Func):
4778    _sql_names = ["DATE_FROM_PARTS", "DATEFROMPARTS"]
4779    arg_types = {"year": True, "month": True, "day": True}
4780
4781
4782class TimeFromParts(Func):
4783    _sql_names = ["TIME_FROM_PARTS", "TIMEFROMPARTS"]
4784    arg_types = {
4785        "hour": True,
4786        "min": True,
4787        "sec": True,
4788        "nano": False,
4789        "fractions": False,
4790        "precision": False,
4791    }
4792
4793
4794class DateStrToDate(Func):
4795    pass
4796
4797
4798class DateToDateStr(Func):
4799    pass
4800
4801
4802class DateToDi(Func):
4803    pass
4804
4805
4806# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/date_functions#date
4807class Date(Func):
4808    arg_types = {"this": False, "zone": False, "expressions": False}
4809    is_var_len_args = True
4810
4811
4812class Day(Func):
4813    pass
4814
4815
4816class Decode(Func):
4817    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": True, "replace": False}
4818
4819
4820class DiToDate(Func):
4821    pass
4822
4823
4824class Encode(Func):
4825    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": True}
4826
4827
4828class Exp(Func):
4829    pass
4830
4831
4832# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/flatten
4833class Explode(Func):
4834    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4835    is_var_len_args = True
4836
4837
4838class ExplodeOuter(Explode):
4839    pass
4840
4841
4842class Posexplode(Explode):
4843    pass
4844
4845
4846class PosexplodeOuter(Posexplode, ExplodeOuter):
4847    pass
4848
4849
4850class Floor(Func):
4851    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
4852
4853
4854class FromBase64(Func):
4855    pass
4856
4857
4858class ToBase64(Func):
4859    pass
4860
4861
4862class Greatest(Func):
4863    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4864    is_var_len_args = True
4865
4866
4867class GroupConcat(AggFunc):
4868    arg_types = {"this": True, "separator": False}
4869
4870
4871class Hex(Func):
4872    pass
4873
4874
4875class Xor(Connector, Func):
4876    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False, "expressions": False}
4877
4878
4879class If(Func):
4880    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
4881    _sql_names = ["IF", "IIF"]
4882
4883
4884class Nullif(Func):
4885    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4886
4887
4888class Initcap(Func):
4889    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4890
4891
4892class IsNan(Func):
4893    _sql_names = ["IS_NAN", "ISNAN"]
4894
4895
4896class IsInf(Func):
4897    _sql_names = ["IS_INF", "ISINF"]
4898
4899
4900class JSONPath(Expression):
4901    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
4902
4903    @property
4904    def output_name(self) -> str:
4905        last_segment = self.expressions[-1].this
4906        return last_segment if isinstance(last_segment, str) else ""
4907
4908
4909class JSONPathPart(Expression):
4910    arg_types = {}
4911
4912
4913class JSONPathFilter(JSONPathPart):
4914    arg_types = {"this": True}
4915
4916
4917class JSONPathKey(JSONPathPart):
4918    arg_types = {"this": True}
4919
4920
4921class JSONPathRecursive(JSONPathPart):
4922    arg_types = {"this": False}
4923
4924
4925class JSONPathRoot(JSONPathPart):
4926    pass
4927
4928
4929class JSONPathScript(JSONPathPart):
4930    arg_types = {"this": True}
4931
4932
4933class JSONPathSlice(JSONPathPart):
4934    arg_types = {"start": False, "end": False, "step": False}
4935
4936
4937class JSONPathSelector(JSONPathPart):
4938    arg_types = {"this": True}
4939
4940
4941class JSONPathSubscript(JSONPathPart):
4942    arg_types = {"this": True}
4943
4944
4945class JSONPathUnion(JSONPathPart):
4946    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
4947
4948
4949class JSONPathWildcard(JSONPathPart):
4950    pass
4951
4952
4953class FormatJson(Expression):
4954    pass
4955
4956
4957class JSONKeyValue(Expression):
4958    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4959
4960
4961class JSONObject(Func):
4962    arg_types = {
4963        "expressions": False,
4964        "null_handling": False,
4965        "unique_keys": False,
4966        "return_type": False,
4967        "encoding": False,
4968    }
4969
4970
4971class JSONObjectAgg(AggFunc):
4972    arg_types = {
4973        "expressions": False,
4974        "null_handling": False,
4975        "unique_keys": False,
4976        "return_type": False,
4977        "encoding": False,
4978    }
4979
4980
4981# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_ARRAY.html
4982class JSONArray(Func):
4983    arg_types = {
4984        "expressions": True,
4985        "null_handling": False,
4986        "return_type": False,
4987        "strict": False,
4988    }
4989
4990
4991# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_ARRAYAGG.html
4992class JSONArrayAgg(Func):
4993    arg_types = {
4994        "this": True,
4995        "order": False,
4996        "null_handling": False,
4997        "return_type": False,
4998        "strict": False,
4999    }
5000
5001
5002# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_TABLE.html
5003# Note: parsing of JSON column definitions is currently incomplete.
5004class JSONColumnDef(Expression):
5005    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": False, "path": False, "nested_schema": False}
5006
5007
5008class JSONSchema(Expression):
5009    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
5010
5011
5012# # https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_TABLE.html
5013class JSONTable(Func):
5014    arg_types = {
5015        "this": True,
5016        "schema": True,
5017        "path": False,
5018        "error_handling": False,
5019        "empty_handling": False,
5020    }
5021
5022
5023class OpenJSONColumnDef(Expression):
5024    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "path": False, "as_json": False}
5025
5026
5027class OpenJSON(Func):
5028    arg_types = {"this": True, "path": False, "expressions": False}
5029
5030
5031class JSONBContains(Binary):
5032    _sql_names = ["JSONB_CONTAINS"]
5033
5034
5035class JSONExtract(Binary, Func):
5036    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "expressions": False}
5037    _sql_names = ["JSON_EXTRACT"]
5038    is_var_len_args = True
5039
5040    @property
5041    def output_name(self) -> str:
5042        return self.expression.output_name if not self.expressions else ""
5043
5044
5045class JSONExtractScalar(Binary, Func):
5046    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "expressions": False}
5047    _sql_names = ["JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR"]
5048    is_var_len_args = True
5049
5050    @property
5051    def output_name(self) -> str:
5052        return self.expression.output_name
5053
5054
5055class JSONBExtract(Binary, Func):
5056    _sql_names = ["JSONB_EXTRACT"]
5057
5058
5059class JSONBExtractScalar(Binary, Func):
5060    _sql_names = ["JSONB_EXTRACT_SCALAR"]
5061
5062
5063class JSONFormat(Func):
5064    arg_types = {"this": False, "options": False}
5065    _sql_names = ["JSON_FORMAT"]
5066
5067
5068# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/json-search-functions.html#operator_member-of
5069class JSONArrayContains(Binary, Predicate, Func):
5070    _sql_names = ["JSON_ARRAY_CONTAINS"]
5071
5072
5073class ParseJSON(Func):
5074    # BigQuery, Snowflake have PARSE_JSON, Presto has JSON_PARSE
5075    _sql_names = ["PARSE_JSON", "JSON_PARSE"]
5076    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5077    is_var_len_args = True
5078
5079
5080class Least(Func):
5081    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5082    is_var_len_args = True
5083
5084
5085class Left(Func):
5086    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5087
5088
5089class Right(Func):
5090    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5091
5092
5093class Length(Func):
5094    _sql_names = ["LENGTH", "LEN"]
5095
5096
5097class Levenshtein(Func):
5098    arg_types = {
5099        "this": True,
5100        "expression": False,
5101        "ins_cost": False,
5102        "del_cost": False,
5103        "sub_cost": False,
5104    }
5105
5106
5107class Ln(Func):
5108    pass
5109
5110
5111class Log(Func):
5112    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5113
5114
5115class Log2(Func):
5116    pass
5117
5118
5119class Log10(Func):
5120    pass
5121
5122
5123class LogicalOr(AggFunc):
5124    _sql_names = ["LOGICAL_OR", "BOOL_OR", "BOOLOR_AGG"]
5125
5126
5127class LogicalAnd(AggFunc):
5128    _sql_names = ["LOGICAL_AND", "BOOL_AND", "BOOLAND_AGG"]
5129
5130
5131class Lower(Func):
5132    _sql_names = ["LOWER", "LCASE"]
5133
5134
5135class Map(Func):
5136    arg_types = {"keys": False, "values": False}
5137
5138    @property
5139    def keys(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5140        keys = self.args.get("keys")
5141        return keys.expressions if keys else []
5142
5143    @property
5144    def values(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5145        values = self.args.get("values")
5146        return values.expressions if values else []
5147
5148
5149class MapFromEntries(Func):
5150    pass
5151
5152
5153class StarMap(Func):
5154    pass
5155
5156
5157class VarMap(Func):
5158    arg_types = {"keys": True, "values": True}
5159    is_var_len_args = True
5160
5161    @property
5162    def keys(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5163        return self.args["keys"].expressions
5164
5165    @property
5166    def values(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5167        return self.args["values"].expressions
5168
5169
5170# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/fulltext-search.html
5171class MatchAgainst(Func):
5172    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "modifier": False}
5173
5174
5175class Max(AggFunc):
5176    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5177    is_var_len_args = True
5178
5179
5180class MD5(Func):
5181    _sql_names = ["MD5"]
5182
5183
5184# Represents the variant of the MD5 function that returns a binary value
5185class MD5Digest(Func):
5186    _sql_names = ["MD5_DIGEST"]
5187
5188
5189class Min(AggFunc):
5190    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5191    is_var_len_args = True
5192
5193
5194class Month(Func):
5195    pass
5196
5197
5198class Nvl2(Func):
5199    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
5200
5201
5202# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/bigqueryml-syntax-predict#mlpredict_function
5203class Predict(Func):
5204    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "params_struct": False}
5205
5206
5207class Pow(Binary, Func):
5208    _sql_names = ["POWER", "POW"]
5209
5210
5211class PercentileCont(AggFunc):
5212    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5213
5214
5215class PercentileDisc(AggFunc):
5216    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5217
5218
5219class Quantile(AggFunc):
5220    arg_types = {"this": True, "quantile": True}
5221
5222
5223class ApproxQuantile(Quantile):
5224    arg_types = {"this": True, "quantile": True, "accuracy": False, "weight": False}
5225
5226
5227class Rand(Func):
5228    _sql_names = ["RAND", "RANDOM"]
5229    arg_types = {"this": False}
5230
5231
5232class Randn(Func):
5233    arg_types = {"this": False}
5234
5235
5236class RangeN(Func):
5237    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "each": False}
5238
5239
5240class ReadCSV(Func):
5241    _sql_names = ["READ_CSV"]
5242    is_var_len_args = True
5243    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5244
5245
5246class Reduce(Func):
5247    arg_types = {"this": True, "initial": True, "merge": True, "finish": False}
5248
5249
5250class RegexpExtract(Func):
5251    arg_types = {
5252        "this": True,
5253        "expression": True,
5254        "position": False,
5255        "occurrence": False,
5256        "parameters": False,
5257        "group": False,
5258    }
5259
5260
5261class RegexpReplace(Func):
5262    arg_types = {
5263        "this": True,
5264        "expression": True,
5265        "replacement": False,
5266        "position": False,
5267        "occurrence": False,
5268        "parameters": False,
5269        "modifiers": False,
5270    }
5271
5272
5273class RegexpLike(Binary, Func):
5274    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "flag": False}
5275
5276
5277class RegexpILike(Binary, Func):
5278    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "flag": False}
5279
5280
5281# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/python/reference/pyspark.sql/api/pyspark.sql.functions.split.html
5282# limit is the number of times a pattern is applied
5283class RegexpSplit(Func):
5284    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "limit": False}
5285
5286
5287class Repeat(Func):
5288    arg_types = {"this": True, "times": True}
5289
5290
5291# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/round-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
5292# tsql third argument function == trunctaion if not 0
5293class Round(Func):
5294    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False, "truncate": False}
5295
5296
5297class RowNumber(Func):
5298    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
5299
5300
5301class SafeDivide(Func):
5302    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5303
5304
5305class SHA(Func):
5306    _sql_names = ["SHA", "SHA1"]
5307
5308
5309class SHA2(Func):
5310    _sql_names = ["SHA2"]
5311    arg_types = {"this": True, "length": False}
5312
5313
5314class SortArray(Func):
5315    arg_types = {"this": True, "asc": False}
5316
5317
5318class Split(Func):
5319    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "limit": False}
5320
5321
5322# Start may be omitted in the case of postgres
5323# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/functions-string.html @ Table 9-6
5324class Substring(Func):
5325    arg_types = {"this": True, "start": False, "length": False}
5326
5327
5328class StandardHash(Func):
5329    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5330
5331
5332class StartsWith(Func):
5333    _sql_names = ["STARTS_WITH", "STARTSWITH"]
5334    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5335
5336
5337class StrPosition(Func):
5338    arg_types = {
5339        "this": True,
5340        "substr": True,
5341        "position": False,
5342        "instance": False,
5343    }
5344
5345
5346class StrToDate(Func):
5347    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True}
5348
5349
5350class StrToTime(Func):
5351    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True, "zone": False}
5352
5353
5354# Spark allows unix_timestamp()
5355# https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.1.3/api/python/reference/api/pyspark.sql.functions.unix_timestamp.html
5356class StrToUnix(Func):
5357    arg_types = {"this": False, "format": False}
5358
5359
5360# https://prestodb.io/docs/current/functions/string.html
5361# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/sql/index.html#str_to_map
5362class StrToMap(Func):
5363    arg_types = {
5364        "this": True,
5365        "pair_delim": False,
5366        "key_value_delim": False,
5367        "duplicate_resolution_callback": False,
5368    }
5369
5370
5371class NumberToStr(Func):
5372    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True, "culture": False}
5373
5374
5375class FromBase(Func):
5376    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5377
5378
5379class Struct(Func):
5380    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
5381    is_var_len_args = True
5382
5383
5384class StructExtract(Func):
5385    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5386
5387
5388# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/stuff-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
5389# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/insert
5390class Stuff(Func):
5391    _sql_names = ["STUFF", "INSERT"]
5392    arg_types = {"this": True, "start": True, "length": True, "expression": True}
5393
5394
5395class Sum(AggFunc):
5396    pass
5397
5398
5399class Sqrt(Func):
5400    pass
5401
5402
5403class Stddev(AggFunc):
5404    pass
5405
5406
5407class StddevPop(AggFunc):
5408    pass
5409
5410
5411class StddevSamp(AggFunc):
5412    pass
5413
5414
5415class TimeToStr(Func):
5416    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True, "culture": False}
5417
5418
5419class TimeToTimeStr(Func):
5420    pass
5421
5422
5423class TimeToUnix(Func):
5424    pass
5425
5426
5427class TimeStrToDate(Func):
5428    pass
5429
5430
5431class TimeStrToTime(Func):
5432    pass
5433
5434
5435class TimeStrToUnix(Func):
5436    pass
5437
5438
5439class Trim(Func):
5440    arg_types = {
5441        "this": True,
5442        "expression": False,
5443        "position": False,
5444        "collation": False,
5445    }
5446
5447
5448class TsOrDsAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
5449    # return_type is used to correctly cast the arguments of this expression when transpiling it
5450    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False, "return_type": False}
5451
5452    @property
5453    def return_type(self) -> DataType:
5454        return DataType.build(self.args.get("return_type") or DataType.Type.DATE)
5455
5456
5457class TsOrDsDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
5458    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5459
5460
5461class TsOrDsToDateStr(Func):
5462    pass
5463
5464
5465class TsOrDsToDate(Func):
5466    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
5467
5468
5469class TsOrDsToTime(Func):
5470    pass
5471
5472
5473class TsOrDiToDi(Func):
5474    pass
5475
5476
5477class Unhex(Func):
5478    pass
5479
5480
5481# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/date_functions#unix_date
5482class UnixDate(Func):
5483    pass
5484
5485
5486class UnixToStr(Func):
5487    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
5488
5489
5490# https://prestodb.io/docs/current/functions/datetime.html
5491# presto has weird zone/hours/minutes
5492class UnixToTime(Func):
5493    arg_types = {"this": True, "scale": False, "zone": False, "hours": False, "minutes": False}
5494
5495    SECONDS = Literal.number(0)
5496    DECIS = Literal.number(1)
5497    CENTIS = Literal.number(2)
5498    MILLIS = Literal.number(3)
5499    DECIMILLIS = Literal.number(4)
5500    CENTIMILLIS = Literal.number(5)
5501    MICROS = Literal.number(6)
5502    DECIMICROS = Literal.number(7)
5503    CENTIMICROS = Literal.number(8)
5504    NANOS = Literal.number(9)
5505
5506
5507class UnixToTimeStr(Func):
5508    pass
5509
5510
5511class TimestampFromParts(Func):
5512    _sql_names = ["TIMESTAMP_FROM_PARTS", "TIMESTAMPFROMPARTS"]
5513    arg_types = {
5514        "year": True,
5515        "month": True,
5516        "day": True,
5517        "hour": True,
5518        "min": True,
5519        "sec": True,
5520        "nano": False,
5521        "zone": False,
5522        "milli": False,
5523    }
5524
5525
5526class Upper(Func):
5527    _sql_names = ["UPPER", "UCASE"]
5528
5529
5530class Variance(AggFunc):
5531    _sql_names = ["VARIANCE", "VARIANCE_SAMP", "VAR_SAMP"]
5532
5533
5534class VariancePop(AggFunc):
5535    _sql_names = ["VARIANCE_POP", "VAR_POP"]
5536
5537
5538class Week(Func):
5539    arg_types = {"this": True, "mode": False}
5540
5541
5542class XMLTable(Func):
5543    arg_types = {"this": True, "passing": False, "columns": False, "by_ref": False}
5544
5545
5546class Year(Func):
5547    pass
5548
5549
5550class Use(Expression):
5551    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
5552
5553
5554class Merge(Expression):
5555    arg_types = {"this": True, "using": True, "on": True, "expressions": True, "with": False}
5556
5557
5558class When(Func):
5559    arg_types = {"matched": True, "source": False, "condition": False, "then": True}
5560
5561
5562# https://docs.oracle.com/javadb/10.8.3.0/ref/rrefsqljnextvaluefor.html
5563# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/next-value-for-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
5564class NextValueFor(Func):
5565    arg_types = {"this": True, "order": False}
5566
5567
5568def _norm_arg(arg):
5569    return arg.lower() if type(arg) is str else arg
5570
5571
5572ALL_FUNCTIONS = subclasses(__name__, Func, (AggFunc, Anonymous, Func))
5573FUNCTION_BY_NAME = {name: func for func in ALL_FUNCTIONS for name in func.sql_names()}
5574
5575JSON_PATH_PARTS = subclasses(__name__, JSONPathPart, (JSONPathPart,))
5576
5577
5578# Helpers
5579@t.overload
5580def maybe_parse(
5581    sql_or_expression: ExpOrStr,
5582    *,
5583    into: t.Type[E],
5584    dialect: DialectType = None,
5585    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
5586    copy: bool = False,
5587    **opts,
5588) -> E:
5589    ...
5590
5591
5592@t.overload
5593def maybe_parse(
5594    sql_or_expression: str | E,
5595    *,
5596    into: t.Optional[IntoType] = None,
5597    dialect: DialectType = None,
5598    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
5599    copy: bool = False,
5600    **opts,
5601) -> E:
5602    ...
5603
5604
5605def maybe_parse(
5606    sql_or_expression: ExpOrStr,
5607    *,
5608    into: t.Optional[IntoType] = None,
5609    dialect: DialectType = None,
5610    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
5611    copy: bool = False,
5612    **opts,
5613) -> Expression:
5614    """Gracefully handle a possible string or expression.
5615
5616    Example:
5617        >>> maybe_parse("1")
5618        Literal(this=1, is_string=False)
5619        >>> maybe_parse(to_identifier("x"))
5620        Identifier(this=x, quoted=False)
5621
5622    Args:
5623        sql_or_expression: the SQL code string or an expression
5624        into: the SQLGlot Expression to parse into
5625        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an
5626            input expression is a SQL string).
5627        prefix: a string to prefix the sql with before it gets parsed
5628            (automatically includes a space)
5629        copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
5630        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
5631            that an input expression is a SQL string).
5632
5633    Returns:
5634        Expression: the parsed or given expression.
5635    """
5636    if isinstance(sql_or_expression, Expression):
5637        if copy:
5638            return sql_or_expression.copy()
5639        return sql_or_expression
5640
5641    if sql_or_expression is None:
5642        raise ParseError("SQL cannot be None")
5643
5644    import sqlglot
5645
5646    sql = str(sql_or_expression)
5647    if prefix:
5648        sql = f"{prefix} {sql}"
5649
5650    return sqlglot.parse_one(sql, read=dialect, into=into, **opts)
5651
5652
5653@t.overload
5654def maybe_copy(instance: None, copy: bool = True) -> None:
5655    ...
5656
5657
5658@t.overload
5659def maybe_copy(instance: E, copy: bool = True) -> E:
5660    ...
5661
5662
5663def maybe_copy(instance, copy=True):
5664    return instance.copy() if copy and instance else instance
5665
5666
5667def _to_s(node: t.Any, verbose: bool = False, level: int = 0) -> str:
5668    """Generate a textual representation of an Expression tree"""
5669    indent = "\n" + ("  " * (level + 1))
5670    delim = f",{indent}"
5671
5672    if isinstance(node, Expression):
5673        args = {k: v for k, v in node.args.items() if (v is not None and v != []) or verbose}
5674
5675        if (node.type or verbose) and not isinstance(node, DataType):
5676            args["_type"] = node.type
5677        if node.comments or verbose:
5678            args["_comments"] = node.comments
5679
5680        if verbose:
5681            args["_id"] = id(node)
5682
5683        # Inline leaves for a more compact representation
5684        if node.is_leaf():
5685            indent = ""
5686            delim = ", "
5687
5688        items = delim.join([f"{k}={_to_s(v, verbose, level + 1)}" for k, v in args.items()])
5689        return f"{node.__class__.__name__}({indent}{items})"
5690
5691    if isinstance(node, list):
5692        items = delim.join(_to_s(i, verbose, level + 1) for i in node)
5693        items = f"{indent}{items}" if items else ""
5694        return f"[{items}]"
5695
5696    # Indent multiline strings to match the current level
5697    return indent.join(textwrap.dedent(str(node).strip("\n")).splitlines())
5698
5699
5700def _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
5701    return isinstance(expression, Expression) and not isinstance(expression, into)
5702
5703
5704def _apply_builder(
5705    expression,
5706    instance,
5707    arg,
5708    copy=True,
5709    prefix=None,
5710    into=None,
5711    dialect=None,
5712    into_arg="this",
5713    **opts,
5714):
5715    if _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
5716        expression = into(**{into_arg: expression})
5717    instance = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
5718    expression = maybe_parse(
5719        sql_or_expression=expression,
5720        prefix=prefix,
5721        into=into,
5722        dialect=dialect,
5723        **opts,
5724    )
5725    instance.set(arg, expression)
5726    return instance
5727
5728
5729def _apply_child_list_builder(
5730    *expressions,
5731    instance,
5732    arg,
5733    append=True,
5734    copy=True,
5735    prefix=None,
5736    into=None,
5737    dialect=None,
5738    properties=None,
5739    **opts,
5740):
5741    instance = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
5742    parsed = []
5743    for expression in expressions:
5744        if expression is not None:
5745            if _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
5746                expression = into(expressions=[expression])
5747
5748            expression = maybe_parse(
5749                expression,
5750                into=into,
5751                dialect=dialect,
5752                prefix=prefix,
5753                **opts,
5754            )
5755            parsed.extend(expression.expressions)
5756
5757    existing = instance.args.get(arg)
5758    if append and existing:
5759        parsed = existing.expressions + parsed
5760
5761    child = into(expressions=parsed)
5762    for k, v in (properties or {}).items():
5763        child.set(k, v)
5764    instance.set(arg, child)
5765
5766    return instance
5767
5768
5769def _apply_list_builder(
5770    *expressions,
5771    instance,
5772    arg,
5773    append=True,
5774    copy=True,
5775    prefix=None,
5776    into=None,
5777    dialect=None,
5778    **opts,
5779):
5780    inst = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
5781
5782    expressions = [
5783        maybe_parse(
5784            sql_or_expression=expression,
5785            into=into,
5786            prefix=prefix,
5787            dialect=dialect,
5788            **opts,
5789        )
5790        for expression in expressions
5791        if expression is not None
5792    ]
5793
5794    existing_expressions = inst.args.get(arg)
5795    if append and existing_expressions:
5796        expressions = existing_expressions + expressions
5797
5798    inst.set(arg, expressions)
5799    return inst
5800
5801
5802def _apply_conjunction_builder(
5803    *expressions,
5804    instance,
5805    arg,
5806    into=None,
5807    append=True,
5808    copy=True,
5809    dialect=None,
5810    **opts,
5811):
5812    expressions = [exp for exp in expressions if exp is not None and exp != ""]
5813    if not expressions:
5814        return instance
5815
5816    inst = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
5817
5818    existing = inst.args.get(arg)
5819    if append and existing is not None:
5820        expressions = [existing.this if into else existing] + list(expressions)
5821
5822    node = and_(*expressions, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5823
5824    inst.set(arg, into(this=node) if into else node)
5825    return inst
5826
5827
5828def _apply_cte_builder(
5829    instance: E,
5830    alias: ExpOrStr,
5831    as_: ExpOrStr,
5832    recursive: t.Optional[bool] = None,
5833    append: bool = True,
5834    dialect: DialectType = None,
5835    copy: bool = True,
5836    **opts,
5837) -> E:
5838    alias_expression = maybe_parse(alias, dialect=dialect, into=TableAlias, **opts)
5839    as_expression = maybe_parse(as_, dialect=dialect, **opts)
5840    cte = CTE(this=as_expression, alias=alias_expression)
5841    return _apply_child_list_builder(
5842        cte,
5843        instance=instance,
5844        arg="with",
5845        append=append,
5846        copy=copy,
5847        into=With,
5848        properties={"recursive": recursive or False},
5849    )
5850
5851
5852def _combine(
5853    expressions: t.Sequence[t.Optional[ExpOrStr]],
5854    operator: t.Type[Connector],
5855    dialect: DialectType = None,
5856    copy: bool = True,
5857    **opts,
5858) -> Expression:
5859    conditions = [
5860        condition(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5861        for expression in expressions
5862        if expression is not None
5863    ]
5864
5865    this, *rest = conditions
5866    if rest:
5867        this = _wrap(this, Connector)
5868    for expression in rest:
5869        this = operator(this=this, expression=_wrap(expression, Connector))
5870
5871    return this
5872
5873
5874def _wrap(expression: E, kind: t.Type[Expression]) -> E | Paren:
5875    return Paren(this=expression) if isinstance(expression, kind) else expression
5876
5877
5878def union(
5879    left: ExpOrStr,
5880    right: ExpOrStr,
5881    distinct: bool = True,
5882    dialect: DialectType = None,
5883    copy: bool = True,
5884    **opts,
5885) -> Union:
5886    """
5887    Initializes a syntax tree from one UNION expression.
5888
5889    Example:
5890        >>> union("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
5891        'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
5892
5893    Args:
5894        left: the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
5895            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
5896        right: the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
5897            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
5898        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
5899        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
5900        copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
5901        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5902
5903    Returns:
5904        The new Union instance.
5905    """
5906    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5907    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5908
5909    return Union(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
5910
5911
5912def intersect(
5913    left: ExpOrStr,
5914    right: ExpOrStr,
5915    distinct: bool = True,
5916    dialect: DialectType = None,
5917    copy: bool = True,
5918    **opts,
5919) -> Intersect:
5920    """
5921    Initializes a syntax tree from one INTERSECT expression.
5922
5923    Example:
5924        >>> intersect("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
5925        'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
5926
5927    Args:
5928        left: the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
5929            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
5930        right: the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
5931            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
5932        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
5933        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
5934        copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
5935        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5936
5937    Returns:
5938        The new Intersect instance.
5939    """
5940    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5941    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5942
5943    return Intersect(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
5944
5945
5946def except_(
5947    left: ExpOrStr,
5948    right: ExpOrStr,
5949    distinct: bool = True,
5950    dialect: DialectType = None,
5951    copy: bool = True,
5952    **opts,
5953) -> Except:
5954    """
5955    Initializes a syntax tree from one EXCEPT expression.
5956
5957    Example:
5958        >>> except_("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
5959        'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
5960
5961    Args:
5962        left: the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
5963            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
5964        right: the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
5965            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
5966        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
5967        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
5968        copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
5969        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
5970
5971    Returns:
5972        The new Except instance.
5973    """
5974    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5975    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
5976
5977    return Except(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
5978
5979
5980def select(*expressions: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> Select:
5981    """
5982    Initializes a syntax tree from one or multiple SELECT expressions.
5983
5984    Example:
5985        >>> select("col1", "col2").from_("tbl").sql()
5986        'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
5987
5988    Args:
5989        *expressions: the SQL code string to parse as the expressions of a
5990            SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
5991        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an
5992            input expression is a SQL string).
5993        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
5994            that an input expression is a SQL string).
5995
5996    Returns:
5997        Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.
5998    """
5999    return Select().select(*expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)
6000
6001
6002def from_(expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> Select:
6003    """
6004    Initializes a syntax tree from a FROM expression.
6005
6006    Example:
6007        >>> from_("tbl").select("col1", "col2").sql()
6008        'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
6009
6010    Args:
6011        *expression: the SQL code string to parse as the FROM expressions of a
6012            SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6013        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the
6014            input expression is a SQL string).
6015        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
6016            that the input expression is a SQL string).
6017
6018    Returns:
6019        Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.
6020    """
6021    return Select().from_(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts)
6022
6023
6024def update(
6025    table: str | Table,
6026    properties: dict,
6027    where: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6028    from_: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6029    dialect: DialectType = None,
6030    **opts,
6031) -> Update:
6032    """
6033    Creates an update statement.
6034
6035    Example:
6036        >>> update("my_table", {"x": 1, "y": "2", "z": None}, from_="baz", where="id > 1").sql()
6037        "UPDATE my_table SET x = 1, y = '2', z = NULL FROM baz WHERE id > 1"
6038
6039    Args:
6040        *properties: dictionary of properties to set which are
6041            auto converted to sql objects eg None -> NULL
6042        where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
6043        from_: sql statement parsed into a FROM statement
6044        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
6045        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6046
6047    Returns:
6048        Update: the syntax tree for the UPDATE statement.
6049    """
6050    update_expr = Update(this=maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect))
6051    update_expr.set(
6052        "expressions",
6053        [
6054            EQ(this=maybe_parse(k, dialect=dialect, **opts), expression=convert(v))
6055            for k, v in properties.items()
6056        ],
6057    )
6058    if from_:
6059        update_expr.set(
6060            "from",
6061            maybe_parse(from_, into=From, dialect=dialect, prefix="FROM", **opts),
6062        )
6063    if isinstance(where, Condition):
6064        where = Where(this=where)
6065    if where:
6066        update_expr.set(
6067            "where",
6068            maybe_parse(where, into=Where, dialect=dialect, prefix="WHERE", **opts),
6069        )
6070    return update_expr
6071
6072
6073def delete(
6074    table: ExpOrStr,
6075    where: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6076    returning: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6077    dialect: DialectType = None,
6078    **opts,
6079) -> Delete:
6080    """
6081    Builds a delete statement.
6082
6083    Example:
6084        >>> delete("my_table", where="id > 1").sql()
6085        'DELETE FROM my_table WHERE id > 1'
6086
6087    Args:
6088        where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
6089        returning: sql conditional parsed into a RETURNING statement
6090        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
6091        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6092
6093    Returns:
6094        Delete: the syntax tree for the DELETE statement.
6095    """
6096    delete_expr = Delete().delete(table, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
6097    if where:
6098        delete_expr = delete_expr.where(where, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
6099    if returning:
6100        delete_expr = t.cast(
6101            Delete, delete_expr.returning(returning, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
6102        )
6103    return delete_expr
6104
6105
6106def insert(
6107    expression: ExpOrStr,
6108    into: ExpOrStr,
6109    columns: t.Optional[t.Sequence[str | Identifier]] = None,
6110    overwrite: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6111    returning: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6112    dialect: DialectType = None,
6113    copy: bool = True,
6114    **opts,
6115) -> Insert:
6116    """
6117    Builds an INSERT statement.
6118
6119    Example:
6120        >>> insert("VALUES (1, 2, 3)", "tbl").sql()
6121        'INSERT INTO tbl VALUES (1, 2, 3)'
6122
6123    Args:
6124        expression: the sql string or expression of the INSERT statement
6125        into: the tbl to insert data to.
6126        columns: optionally the table's column names.
6127        overwrite: whether to INSERT OVERWRITE or not.
6128        returning: sql conditional parsed into a RETURNING statement
6129        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
6130        copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
6131        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6132
6133    Returns:
6134        Insert: the syntax tree for the INSERT statement.
6135    """
6136    expr = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6137    this: Table | Schema = maybe_parse(into, into=Table, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6138
6139    if columns:
6140        this = Schema(this=this, expressions=[to_identifier(c, copy=copy) for c in columns])
6141
6142    insert = Insert(this=this, expression=expr, overwrite=overwrite)
6143
6144    if returning:
6145        insert = t.cast(Insert, insert.returning(returning, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts))
6146
6147    return insert
6148
6149
6150def condition(
6151    expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
6152) -> Condition:
6153    """
6154    Initialize a logical condition expression.
6155
6156    Example:
6157        >>> condition("x=1").sql()
6158        'x = 1'
6159
6160        This is helpful for composing larger logical syntax trees:
6161        >>> where = condition("x=1")
6162        >>> where = where.and_("y=1")
6163        >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("*").where(where).sql()
6164        'SELECT * FROM tbl WHERE x = 1 AND y = 1'
6165
6166    Args:
6167        *expression: the SQL code string to parse.
6168            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6169        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the
6170            input expression is a SQL string).
6171        copy: Whether or not to copy `expression` (only applies to expressions).
6172        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
6173            that the input expression is a SQL string).
6174
6175    Returns:
6176        The new Condition instance
6177    """
6178    return maybe_parse(
6179        expression,
6180        into=Condition,
6181        dialect=dialect,
6182        copy=copy,
6183        **opts,
6184    )
6185
6186
6187def and_(
6188    *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
6189) -> Condition:
6190    """
6191    Combine multiple conditions with an AND logical operator.
6192
6193    Example:
6194        >>> and_("x=1", and_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
6195        'x = 1 AND (y = 1 AND z = 1)'
6196
6197    Args:
6198        *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
6199            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6200        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6201        copy: whether or not to copy `expressions` (only applies to Expressions).
6202        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6203
6204    Returns:
6205        And: the new condition
6206    """
6207    return t.cast(Condition, _combine(expressions, And, dialect, copy=copy, **opts))
6208
6209
6210def or_(
6211    *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
6212) -> Condition:
6213    """
6214    Combine multiple conditions with an OR logical operator.
6215
6216    Example:
6217        >>> or_("x=1", or_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
6218        'x = 1 OR (y = 1 OR z = 1)'
6219
6220    Args:
6221        *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
6222            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6223        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6224        copy: whether or not to copy `expressions` (only applies to Expressions).
6225        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6226
6227    Returns:
6228        Or: the new condition
6229    """
6230    return t.cast(Condition, _combine(expressions, Or, dialect, copy=copy, **opts))
6231
6232
6233def not_(expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Not:
6234    """
6235    Wrap a condition with a NOT operator.
6236
6237    Example:
6238        >>> not_("this_suit='black'").sql()
6239        "NOT this_suit = 'black'"
6240
6241    Args:
6242        expression: the SQL code string to parse.
6243            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6244        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6245        copy: whether to copy the expression or not.
6246        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6247
6248    Returns:
6249        The new condition.
6250    """
6251    this = condition(
6252        expression,
6253        dialect=dialect,
6254        copy=copy,
6255        **opts,
6256    )
6257    return Not(this=_wrap(this, Connector))
6258
6259
6260def paren(expression: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True) -> Paren:
6261    """
6262    Wrap an expression in parentheses.
6263
6264    Example:
6265        >>> paren("5 + 3").sql()
6266        '(5 + 3)'
6267
6268    Args:
6269        expression: the SQL code string to parse.
6270            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6271        copy: whether to copy the expression or not.
6272
6273    Returns:
6274        The wrapped expression.
6275    """
6276    return Paren(this=maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy))
6277
6278
6279SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE: t.Pattern[str] = re.compile(r"^[_a-zA-Z][\w]*$")
6280
6281
6282@t.overload
6283def to_identifier(name: None, quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None, copy: bool = True) -> None:
6284    ...
6285
6286
6287@t.overload
6288def to_identifier(
6289    name: str | Identifier, quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None, copy: bool = True
6290) -> Identifier:
6291    ...
6292
6293
6294def to_identifier(name, quoted=None, copy=True):
6295    """Builds an identifier.
6296
6297    Args:
6298        name: The name to turn into an identifier.
6299        quoted: Whether or not force quote the identifier.
6300        copy: Whether or not to copy name if it's an Identifier.
6301
6302    Returns:
6303        The identifier ast node.
6304    """
6305
6306    if name is None:
6307        return None
6308
6309    if isinstance(name, Identifier):
6310        identifier = maybe_copy(name, copy)
6311    elif isinstance(name, str):
6312        identifier = Identifier(
6313            this=name,
6314            quoted=not SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(name) if quoted is None else quoted,
6315        )
6316    else:
6317        raise ValueError(f"Name needs to be a string or an Identifier, got: {name.__class__}")
6318    return identifier
6319
6320
6321def parse_identifier(name: str | Identifier, dialect: DialectType = None) -> Identifier:
6322    """
6323    Parses a given string into an identifier.
6324
6325    Args:
6326        name: The name to parse into an identifier.
6327        dialect: The dialect to parse against.
6328
6329    Returns:
6330        The identifier ast node.
6331    """
6332    try:
6333        expression = maybe_parse(name, dialect=dialect, into=Identifier)
6334    except ParseError:
6335        expression = to_identifier(name)
6336
6337    return expression
6338
6339
6340INTERVAL_STRING_RE = re.compile(r"\s*([0-9]+)\s*([a-zA-Z]+)\s*")
6341
6342
6343def to_interval(interval: str | Literal) -> Interval:
6344    """Builds an interval expression from a string like '1 day' or '5 months'."""
6345    if isinstance(interval, Literal):
6346        if not interval.is_string:
6347            raise ValueError("Invalid interval string.")
6348
6349        interval = interval.this
6350
6351    interval_parts = INTERVAL_STRING_RE.match(interval)  # type: ignore
6352
6353    if not interval_parts:
6354        raise ValueError("Invalid interval string.")
6355
6356    return Interval(
6357        this=Literal.string(interval_parts.group(1)),
6358        unit=Var(this=interval_parts.group(2).upper()),
6359    )
6360
6361
6362@t.overload
6363def to_table(sql_path: str | Table, **kwargs) -> Table:
6364    ...
6365
6366
6367@t.overload
6368def to_table(sql_path: None, **kwargs) -> None:
6369    ...
6370
6371
6372def to_table(
6373    sql_path: t.Optional[str | Table], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **kwargs
6374) -> t.Optional[Table]:
6375    """
6376    Create a table expression from a `[catalog].[schema].[table]` sql path. Catalog and schema are optional.
6377    If a table is passed in then that table is returned.
6378
6379    Args:
6380        sql_path: a `[catalog].[schema].[table]` string.
6381        dialect: the source dialect according to which the table name will be parsed.
6382        copy: Whether or not to copy a table if it is passed in.
6383        kwargs: the kwargs to instantiate the resulting `Table` expression with.
6384
6385    Returns:
6386        A table expression.
6387    """
6388    if sql_path is None or isinstance(sql_path, Table):
6389        return maybe_copy(sql_path, copy=copy)
6390    if not isinstance(sql_path, str):
6391        raise ValueError(f"Invalid type provided for a table: {type(sql_path)}")
6392
6393    table = maybe_parse(sql_path, into=Table, dialect=dialect)
6394    if table:
6395        for k, v in kwargs.items():
6396            table.set(k, v)
6397
6398    return table
6399
6400
6401def to_column(sql_path: str | Column, **kwargs) -> Column:
6402    """
6403    Create a column from a `[table].[column]` sql path. Schema is optional.
6404
6405    If a column is passed in then that column is returned.
6406
6407    Args:
6408        sql_path: `[table].[column]` string
6409    Returns:
6410        Table: A column expression
6411    """
6412    if sql_path is None or isinstance(sql_path, Column):
6413        return sql_path
6414    if not isinstance(sql_path, str):
6415        raise ValueError(f"Invalid type provided for column: {type(sql_path)}")
6416    return column(*reversed(sql_path.split(".")), **kwargs)  # type: ignore
6417
6418
6419def alias_(
6420    expression: ExpOrStr,
6421    alias: str | Identifier,
6422    table: bool | t.Sequence[str | Identifier] = False,
6423    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6424    dialect: DialectType = None,
6425    copy: bool = True,
6426    **opts,
6427):
6428    """Create an Alias expression.
6429
6430    Example:
6431        >>> alias_('foo', 'bar').sql()
6432        'foo AS bar'
6433
6434        >>> alias_('(select 1, 2)', 'bar', table=['a', 'b']).sql()
6435        '(SELECT 1, 2) AS bar(a, b)'
6436
6437    Args:
6438        expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
6439            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6440        alias: the alias name to use. If the name has
6441            special characters it is quoted.
6442        table: Whether or not to create a table alias, can also be a list of columns.
6443        quoted: whether or not to quote the alias
6444        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6445        copy: Whether or not to copy the expression.
6446        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6447
6448    Returns:
6449        Alias: the aliased expression
6450    """
6451    exp = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6452    alias = to_identifier(alias, quoted=quoted)
6453
6454    if table:
6455        table_alias = TableAlias(this=alias)
6456        exp.set("alias", table_alias)
6457
6458        if not isinstance(table, bool):
6459            for column in table:
6460                table_alias.append("columns", to_identifier(column, quoted=quoted))
6461
6462        return exp
6463
6464    # We don't set the "alias" arg for Window expressions, because that would add an IDENTIFIER node in
6465    # the AST, representing a "named_window" [1] construct (eg. bigquery). What we want is an ALIAS node
6466    # for the complete Window expression.
6467    #
6468    # [1]: https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/window-function-calls
6469
6470    if "alias" in exp.arg_types and not isinstance(exp, Window):
6471        exp.set("alias", alias)
6472        return exp
6473    return Alias(this=exp, alias=alias)
6474
6475
6476def subquery(
6477    expression: ExpOrStr,
6478    alias: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
6479    dialect: DialectType = None,
6480    **opts,
6481) -> Select:
6482    """
6483    Build a subquery expression.
6484
6485    Example:
6486        >>> subquery('select x from tbl', 'bar').select('x').sql()
6487        'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl) AS bar'
6488
6489    Args:
6490        expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
6491            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6492        alias: the alias name to use.
6493        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6494        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6495
6496    Returns:
6497        A new Select instance with the subquery expression included.
6498    """
6499
6500    expression = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts).subquery(alias)
6501    return Select().from_(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts)
6502
6503
6504@t.overload
6505def column(
6506    col: str | Identifier,
6507    table: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
6508    db: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
6509    catalog: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
6510    *,
6511    fields: t.Collection[t.Union[str, Identifier]],
6512    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6513    copy: bool = True,
6514) -> Dot:
6515    pass
6516
6517
6518@t.overload
6519def column(
6520    col: str | Identifier,
6521    table: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
6522    db: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
6523    catalog: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
6524    *,
6525    fields: Lit[None] = None,
6526    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6527    copy: bool = True,
6528) -> Column:
6529    pass
6530
6531
6532def column(
6533    col,
6534    table=None,
6535    db=None,
6536    catalog=None,
6537    *,
6538    fields=None,
6539    quoted=None,
6540    copy=True,
6541):
6542    """
6543    Build a Column.
6544
6545    Args:
6546        col: Column name.
6547        table: Table name.
6548        db: Database name.
6549        catalog: Catalog name.
6550        fields: Additional fields using dots.
6551        quoted: Whether to force quotes on the column's identifiers.
6552        copy: Whether or not to copy identifiers if passed in.
6553
6554    Returns:
6555        The new Column instance.
6556    """
6557    this = Column(
6558        this=to_identifier(col, quoted=quoted, copy=copy),
6559        table=to_identifier(table, quoted=quoted, copy=copy),
6560        db=to_identifier(db, quoted=quoted, copy=copy),
6561        catalog=to_identifier(catalog, quoted=quoted, copy=copy),
6562    )
6563
6564    if fields:
6565        this = Dot.build((this, *(to_identifier(field, copy=copy) for field in fields)))
6566    return this
6567
6568
6569def cast(expression: ExpOrStr, to: DATA_TYPE, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Cast:
6570    """Cast an expression to a data type.
6571
6572    Example:
6573        >>> cast('x + 1', 'int').sql()
6574        'CAST(x + 1 AS INT)'
6575
6576    Args:
6577        expression: The expression to cast.
6578        to: The datatype to cast to.
6579        copy: Whether or not to copy the supplied expressions.
6580
6581    Returns:
6582        The new Cast instance.
6583    """
6584    expression = maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy, **opts)
6585    data_type = DataType.build(to, copy=copy, **opts)
6586    expression = Cast(this=expression, to=data_type)
6587    expression.type = data_type
6588    return expression
6589
6590
6591def table_(
6592    table: Identifier | str,
6593    db: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
6594    catalog: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
6595    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6596    alias: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
6597) -> Table:
6598    """Build a Table.
6599
6600    Args:
6601        table: Table name.
6602        db: Database name.
6603        catalog: Catalog name.
6604        quote: Whether to force quotes on the table's identifiers.
6605        alias: Table's alias.
6606
6607    Returns:
6608        The new Table instance.
6609    """
6610    return Table(
6611        this=to_identifier(table, quoted=quoted) if table else None,
6612        db=to_identifier(db, quoted=quoted) if db else None,
6613        catalog=to_identifier(catalog, quoted=quoted) if catalog else None,
6614        alias=TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None,
6615    )
6616
6617
6618def values(
6619    values: t.Iterable[t.Tuple[t.Any, ...]],
6620    alias: t.Optional[str] = None,
6621    columns: t.Optional[t.Iterable[str] | t.Dict[str, DataType]] = None,
6622) -> Values:
6623    """Build VALUES statement.
6624
6625    Example:
6626        >>> values([(1, '2')]).sql()
6627        "VALUES (1, '2')"
6628
6629    Args:
6630        values: values statements that will be converted to SQL
6631        alias: optional alias
6632        columns: Optional list of ordered column names or ordered dictionary of column names to types.
6633         If either are provided then an alias is also required.
6634
6635    Returns:
6636        Values: the Values expression object
6637    """
6638    if columns and not alias:
6639        raise ValueError("Alias is required when providing columns")
6640
6641    return Values(
6642        expressions=[convert(tup) for tup in values],
6643        alias=(
6644            TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias), columns=[to_identifier(x) for x in columns])
6645            if columns
6646            else (TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None)
6647        ),
6648    )
6649
6650
6651def var(name: t.Optional[ExpOrStr]) -> Var:
6652    """Build a SQL variable.
6653
6654    Example:
6655        >>> repr(var('x'))
6656        'Var(this=x)'
6657
6658        >>> repr(var(column('x', table='y')))
6659        'Var(this=x)'
6660
6661    Args:
6662        name: The name of the var or an expression who's name will become the var.
6663
6664    Returns:
6665        The new variable node.
6666    """
6667    if not name:
6668        raise ValueError("Cannot convert empty name into var.")
6669
6670    if isinstance(name, Expression):
6671        name = name.name
6672    return Var(this=name)
6673
6674
6675def rename_table(old_name: str | Table, new_name: str | Table) -> AlterTable:
6676    """Build ALTER TABLE... RENAME... expression
6677
6678    Args:
6679        old_name: The old name of the table
6680        new_name: The new name of the table
6681
6682    Returns:
6683        Alter table expression
6684    """
6685    old_table = to_table(old_name)
6686    new_table = to_table(new_name)
6687    return AlterTable(
6688        this=old_table,
6689        actions=[
6690            RenameTable(this=new_table),
6691        ],
6692    )
6693
6694
6695def rename_column(
6696    table_name: str | Table,
6697    old_column_name: str | Column,
6698    new_column_name: str | Column,
6699    exists: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6700) -> AlterTable:
6701    """Build ALTER TABLE... RENAME COLUMN... expression
6702
6703    Args:
6704        table_name: Name of the table
6705        old_column: The old name of the column
6706        new_column: The new name of the column
6707        exists: Whether or not to add the `IF EXISTS` clause
6708
6709    Returns:
6710        Alter table expression
6711    """
6712    table = to_table(table_name)
6713    old_column = to_column(old_column_name)
6714    new_column = to_column(new_column_name)
6715    return AlterTable(
6716        this=table,
6717        actions=[
6718            RenameColumn(this=old_column, to=new_column, exists=exists),
6719        ],
6720    )
6721
6722
6723def convert(value: t.Any, copy: bool = False) -> Expression:
6724    """Convert a python value into an expression object.
6725
6726    Raises an error if a conversion is not possible.
6727
6728    Args:
6729        value: A python object.
6730        copy: Whether or not to copy `value` (only applies to Expressions and collections).
6731
6732    Returns:
6733        Expression: the equivalent expression object.
6734    """
6735    if isinstance(value, Expression):
6736        return maybe_copy(value, copy)
6737    if isinstance(value, str):
6738        return Literal.string(value)
6739    if isinstance(value, bool):
6740        return Boolean(this=value)
6741    if value is None or (isinstance(value, float) and math.isnan(value)):
6742        return null()
6743    if isinstance(value, numbers.Number):
6744        return Literal.number(value)
6745    if isinstance(value, datetime.datetime):
6746        datetime_literal = Literal.string(
6747            (value if value.tzinfo else value.replace(tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)).isoformat()
6748        )
6749        return TimeStrToTime(this=datetime_literal)
6750    if isinstance(value, datetime.date):
6751        date_literal = Literal.string(value.strftime("%Y-%m-%d"))
6752        return DateStrToDate(this=date_literal)
6753    if isinstance(value, tuple):
6754        return Tuple(expressions=[convert(v, copy=copy) for v in value])
6755    if isinstance(value, list):
6756        return Array(expressions=[convert(v, copy=copy) for v in value])
6757    if isinstance(value, dict):
6758        return Map(
6759            keys=Array(expressions=[convert(k, copy=copy) for k in value]),
6760            values=Array(expressions=[convert(v, copy=copy) for v in value.values()]),
6761        )
6762    raise ValueError(f"Cannot convert {value}")
6763
6764
6765def replace_children(expression: Expression, fun: t.Callable, *args, **kwargs) -> None:
6766    """
6767    Replace children of an expression with the result of a lambda fun(child) -> exp.
6768    """
6769    for k, v in expression.args.items():
6770        is_list_arg = type(v) is list
6771
6772        child_nodes = v if is_list_arg else [v]
6773        new_child_nodes = []
6774
6775        for cn in child_nodes:
6776            if isinstance(cn, Expression):
6777                for child_node in ensure_collection(fun(cn, *args, **kwargs)):
6778                    new_child_nodes.append(child_node)
6779                    child_node.parent = expression
6780                    child_node.arg_key = k
6781            else:
6782                new_child_nodes.append(cn)
6783
6784        expression.args[k] = new_child_nodes if is_list_arg else seq_get(new_child_nodes, 0)
6785
6786
6787def column_table_names(expression: Expression, exclude: str = "") -> t.Set[str]:
6788    """
6789    Return all table names referenced through columns in an expression.
6790
6791    Example:
6792        >>> import sqlglot
6793        >>> sorted(column_table_names(sqlglot.parse_one("a.b AND c.d AND c.e")))
6794        ['a', 'c']
6795
6796    Args:
6797        expression: expression to find table names.
6798        exclude: a table name to exclude
6799
6800    Returns:
6801        A list of unique names.
6802    """
6803    return {
6804        table
6805        for table in (column.table for column in expression.find_all(Column))
6806        if table and table != exclude
6807    }
6808
6809
6810def table_name(table: Table | str, dialect: DialectType = None, identify: bool = False) -> str:
6811    """Get the full name of a table as a string.
6812
6813    Args:
6814        table: Table expression node or string.
6815        dialect: The dialect to generate the table name for.
6816        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
6817            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
6818            True: Always quote.
6819
6820    Examples:
6821        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
6822        >>> table_name(parse_one("select * from a.b.c").find(exp.Table))
6823        'a.b.c'
6824
6825    Returns:
6826        The table name.
6827    """
6828
6829    table = maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect)
6830
6831    if not table:
6832        raise ValueError(f"Cannot parse {table}")
6833
6834    return ".".join(
6835        (
6836            part.sql(dialect=dialect, identify=True, copy=False)
6837            if identify or not SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(part.name)
6838            else part.name
6839        )
6840        for part in table.parts
6841    )
6842
6843
6844def normalize_table_name(table: str | Table, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True) -> str:
6845    """Returns a case normalized table name without quotes.
6846
6847    Args:
6848        table: the table to normalize
6849        dialect: the dialect to use for normalization rules
6850        copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
6851
6852    Examples:
6853        >>> normalize_table_name("`A-B`.c", dialect="bigquery")
6854        'A-B.c'
6855    """
6856    from sqlglot.optimizer.normalize_identifiers import normalize_identifiers
6857
6858    return ".".join(
6859        p.name
6860        for p in normalize_identifiers(
6861            to_table(table, dialect=dialect, copy=copy), dialect=dialect
6862        ).parts
6863    )
6864
6865
6866def replace_tables(
6867    expression: E, mapping: t.Dict[str, str], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True
6868) -> E:
6869    """Replace all tables in expression according to the mapping.
6870
6871    Args:
6872        expression: expression node to be transformed and replaced.
6873        mapping: mapping of table names.
6874        dialect: the dialect of the mapping table
6875        copy: whether or not to copy the expression.
6876
6877    Examples:
6878        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
6879        >>> replace_tables(parse_one("select * from a.b"), {"a.b": "c"}).sql()
6880        'SELECT * FROM c /* a.b */'
6881
6882    Returns:
6883        The mapped expression.
6884    """
6885
6886    mapping = {normalize_table_name(k, dialect=dialect): v for k, v in mapping.items()}
6887
6888    def _replace_tables(node: Expression) -> Expression:
6889        if isinstance(node, Table):
6890            original = normalize_table_name(node, dialect=dialect)
6891            new_name = mapping.get(original)
6892
6893            if new_name:
6894                table = to_table(
6895                    new_name,
6896                    **{k: v for k, v in node.args.items() if k not in TABLE_PARTS},
6897                )
6898                table.add_comments([original])
6899                return table
6900        return node
6901
6902    return expression.transform(_replace_tables, copy=copy)
6903
6904
6905def replace_placeholders(expression: Expression, *args, **kwargs) -> Expression:
6906    """Replace placeholders in an expression.
6907
6908    Args:
6909        expression: expression node to be transformed and replaced.
6910        args: positional names that will substitute unnamed placeholders in the given order.
6911        kwargs: keyword arguments that will substitute named placeholders.
6912
6913    Examples:
6914        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
6915        >>> replace_placeholders(
6916        ...     parse_one("select * from :tbl where ? = ?"),
6917        ...     exp.to_identifier("str_col"), "b", tbl=exp.to_identifier("foo")
6918        ... ).sql()
6919        "SELECT * FROM foo WHERE str_col = 'b'"
6920
6921    Returns:
6922        The mapped expression.
6923    """
6924
6925    def _replace_placeholders(node: Expression, args, **kwargs) -> Expression:
6926        if isinstance(node, Placeholder):
6927            if node.name:
6928                new_name = kwargs.get(node.name)
6929                if new_name:
6930                    return convert(new_name)
6931            else:
6932                try:
6933                    return convert(next(args))
6934                except StopIteration:
6935                    pass
6936        return node
6937
6938    return expression.transform(_replace_placeholders, iter(args), **kwargs)
6939
6940
6941def expand(
6942    expression: Expression,
6943    sources: t.Dict[str, Subqueryable],
6944    dialect: DialectType = None,
6945    copy: bool = True,
6946) -> Expression:
6947    """Transforms an expression by expanding all referenced sources into subqueries.
6948
6949    Examples:
6950        >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
6951        >>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y")}).sql()
6952        'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM y) AS z /* source: x */'
6953
6954        >>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y"), "y": parse_one("select * from z")}).sql()
6955        'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM z) AS y /* source: y */) AS z /* source: x */'
6956
6957    Args:
6958        expression: The expression to expand.
6959        sources: A dictionary of name to Subqueryables.
6960        dialect: The dialect of the sources dict.
6961        copy: Whether or not to copy the expression during transformation. Defaults to True.
6962
6963    Returns:
6964        The transformed expression.
6965    """
6966    sources = {normalize_table_name(k, dialect=dialect): v for k, v in sources.items()}
6967
6968    def _expand(node: Expression):
6969        if isinstance(node, Table):
6970            name = normalize_table_name(node, dialect=dialect)
6971            source = sources.get(name)
6972            if source:
6973                subquery = source.subquery(node.alias or name)
6974                subquery.comments = [f"source: {name}"]
6975                return subquery.transform(_expand, copy=False)
6976        return node
6977
6978    return expression.transform(_expand, copy=copy)
6979
6980
6981def func(name: str, *args, copy: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs) -> Func:
6982    """
6983    Returns a Func expression.
6984
6985    Examples:
6986        >>> func("abs", 5).sql()
6987        'ABS(5)'
6988
6989        >>> func("cast", this=5, to=DataType.build("DOUBLE")).sql()
6990        'CAST(5 AS DOUBLE)'
6991
6992    Args:
6993        name: the name of the function to build.
6994        args: the args used to instantiate the function of interest.
6995        copy: whether or not to copy the argument expressions.
6996        dialect: the source dialect.
6997        kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
6998
6999    Note:
7000        The arguments `args` and `kwargs` are mutually exclusive.
7001
7002    Returns:
7003        An instance of the function of interest, or an anonymous function, if `name` doesn't
7004        correspond to an existing `sqlglot.expressions.Func` class.
7005    """
7006    if args and kwargs:
7007        raise ValueError("Can't use both args and kwargs to instantiate a function.")
7008
7009    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import Dialect
7010
7011    dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
7012
7013    converted: t.List[Expression] = [maybe_parse(arg, dialect=dialect, copy=copy) for arg in args]
7014    kwargs = {key: maybe_parse(value, dialect=dialect, copy=copy) for key, value in kwargs.items()}
7015
7016    constructor = dialect.parser_class.FUNCTIONS.get(name.upper())
7017    if constructor:
7018        if converted:
7019            if "dialect" in constructor.__code__.co_varnames:
7020                function = constructor(converted, dialect=dialect)
7021            else:
7022                function = constructor(converted)
7023        elif constructor.__name__ == "from_arg_list":
7024            function = constructor.__self__(**kwargs)  # type: ignore
7025        else:
7026            constructor = FUNCTION_BY_NAME.get(name.upper())
7027            if constructor:
7028                function = constructor(**kwargs)
7029            else:
7030                raise ValueError(
7031                    f"Unable to convert '{name}' into a Func. Either manually construct "
7032                    "the Func expression of interest or parse the function call."
7033                )
7034    else:
7035        kwargs = kwargs or {"expressions": converted}
7036        function = Anonymous(this=name, **kwargs)
7037
7038    for error_message in function.error_messages(converted):
7039        raise ValueError(error_message)
7040
7041    return function
7042
7043
7044def case(
7045    expression: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
7046    **opts,
7047) -> Case:
7048    """
7049    Initialize a CASE statement.
7050
7051    Example:
7052        case().when("a = 1", "foo").else_("bar")
7053
7054    Args:
7055        expression: Optionally, the input expression (not all dialects support this)
7056        **opts: Extra keyword arguments for parsing `expression`
7057    """
7058    if expression is not None:
7059        this = maybe_parse(expression, **opts)
7060    else:
7061        this = None
7062    return Case(this=this, ifs=[])
7063
7064
7065def cast_unless(
7066    expression: ExpOrStr,
7067    to: DATA_TYPE,
7068    *types: DATA_TYPE,
7069    **opts: t.Any,
7070) -> Expression | Cast:
7071    """
7072    Cast an expression to a data type unless it is a specified type.
7073
7074    Args:
7075        expression: The expression to cast.
7076        to: The data type to cast to.
7077        **types: The types to exclude from casting.
7078        **opts: Extra keyword arguments for parsing `expression`
7079    """
7080    expr = maybe_parse(expression, **opts)
7081    if expr.is_type(*types):
7082        return expr
7083    return cast(expr, to, **opts)
7084
7085
7086def array(
7087    *expressions: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs
7088) -> Array:
7089    """
7090    Returns an array.
7091
7092    Examples:
7093        >>> array(1, 'x').sql()
7094        'ARRAY(1, x)'
7095
7096    Args:
7097        expressions: the expressions to add to the array.
7098        copy: whether or not to copy the argument expressions.
7099        dialect: the source dialect.
7100        kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
7101
7102    Returns:
7103        An array expression.
7104    """
7105    return Array(
7106        expressions=[
7107            maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy, dialect=dialect, **kwargs)
7108            for expression in expressions
7109        ]
7110    )
7111
7112
7113def tuple_(
7114    *expressions: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs
7115) -> Tuple:
7116    """
7117    Returns an tuple.
7118
7119    Examples:
7120        >>> tuple_(1, 'x').sql()
7121        '(1, x)'
7122
7123    Args:
7124        expressions: the expressions to add to the tuple.
7125        copy: whether or not to copy the argument expressions.
7126        dialect: the source dialect.
7127        kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
7128
7129    Returns:
7130        A tuple expression.
7131    """
7132    return Tuple(
7133        expressions=[
7134            maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy, dialect=dialect, **kwargs)
7135            for expression in expressions
7136        ]
7137    )
7138
7139
7140def true() -> Boolean:
7141    """
7142    Returns a true Boolean expression.
7143    """
7144    return Boolean(this=True)
7145
7146
7147def false() -> Boolean:
7148    """
7149    Returns a false Boolean expression.
7150    """
7151    return Boolean(this=False)
7152
7153
7154def null() -> Null:
7155    """
7156    Returns a Null expression.
7157    """
7158    return Null()